Probability inundation map for a scenario combining storm surge and sea-level rise

Coastal managers require reliable spatial data on the extent and timing of potential coastal inundation, particularly in a changing climate. Most sea level rise (SLR) vulnerability assessments are undertaken using the easily implemented bathtub approach, where areas adjacent to the sea and below a given elevation are mapped using a deterministic line dividing potentially inundated from dry areas. This method only requires elevation data usually in the form of a digital elevation model (DEM). However, inherent errors in the DEM and spatial analysis of the bathtub model propagate into the inundation mapping. The aim of this study was to assess the impacts of spatially variable and spatially correlated elevation errors in high-spatial resolution DEMs for mapping coastal inundation. Elevation errors were best modelled using regression-kriging. This geostatistical model takes the spatial correlation in elevation errors into account, which has a significant impact on analyses that include spatial interactions, such as inundation modelling. The spatial variability of elevation errors was partially explained by land cover and terrain variables. Elevation errors were simulated using sequential Gaussian simulation, a Monte Carlo probabilistic approach. 1,000 error simulations were added to the original DEM and reclassified using a hydrologically correct bathtub method. The probability of inundation to a scenario combining a 1 in 100 year storm event over a 1 m SLR was calculated by counting the proportion of times from the 1,000 simulations that a location was inundated. This probabilistic approach can be used in a risk-aversive decision making process by planning for scenarios with different probabilities of occurrence. For example, results showed that when considering a 1% probability exceedance, the inundated area was approximately 11% larger than mapped using the deterministic bathtub approach. The probabilistic approach provides visually intuitive maps that convey uncertainties inherent to spatial data and analysis.

Static GPS measurements and elevation model in the vicinity of the EDML deep-drilling site

Interpretation of ice-core records requires accurate knowledge of the past and present surface topography and stress-strain fields. The European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) drilling site (0.0684° E and 75.0025° S, 2891.7 m) in Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica, is located in the immediate vicinity of a transient and splitting ice divide. A digital elevation model is determined from the combination of kinematic GPS measurements with the GLAS12 data sets from the ICESat satellite. Based on a network of stakes, surveyed with static GPS, the velocity field around the EDML drilling site is calculated. The annual mean velocity magnitude of 12 survey points amounts to 0.74 m/a. Flow directions mainly vary according to their distance from the ice divide. Surface strain rates are determined from a pentagon-shaped stake network with one center point, close to the drilling site. The strain field is characterised by along flow compression, lateral dilatation, and vertical layer thinning.

Northeast Greenland - Digital Bathymetric Compilation, with links to DBM in ArcGIS format

A new digital bathymetric model (DBM) for the Northeast Greenland (NEG) continental shelf (74°N - 81°N) is presented. The DBM has a grid cell size of 250 m × 250 m and incorporates bathymetric data from 30 multibeam cruises, more than 20 single-beam cruises and first reflector depths from industrial seismic lines. The new DBM substantially improves the bathymetry compared to older models. The DBM not only allows a better delineation of previously known seafloor morphology but, in addition, reveals the presence of previously unmapped morphological features including glacially derived troughs, fjords, grounding-zone wedges, and lateral moraines. These submarine landforms are used to infer the past extent and ice-flow dynamics of the Greenland Ice Sheet during the last full-glacial period of the Quaternary and subsequent ice retreat across the continental shelf. The DBM reveals cross-shelf bathymetric troughs that may enable the inflow of warm Atlantic water masses across the shelf, driving enhanced basal melting of the marine-terminating outlet glaciers draining the ice sheet to the coast in Northeast Greenland. Knolls, sinks, and hummocky seafloor on the middle shelf are also suggested to be related to salt diapirism. North-south-orientated elongate depressions are identified that probably relate to ice-marginal processes in combination with erosion caused by the East Greenland Current. A single guyot-like peak has been discovered and is interpreted to have been produced during a volcanic event approximately 55 Ma ago.

Static GPS measurements in the vicinity of EDML and an elevation model for Dronning Maud Land

The knowledge of ice sheet surface topography and the location of the ice divides are essential for ice dynamic modeling. An improved digital elevation model (DEM) of Dronning Maud Land (DML), Antarctica, is presented in this paper. It is based on ground-based kinematic GPS profiles, airborne radar altimetry, and data of the airborne radio-echo sounding system, as well as spaceborne laser altimetry from NASA's Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat). The accuracy of ICESat ice sheet altimetry data in the area of investigation is discussed. The location of the ice divides is derived from aspect calculation of the topography and is verified with several velocity data derived from repeated static GPS measurements.

Computational methods to create and analyze a digital gene expression atlas of embryo development from microscopy images

Abstract The creation of atlases, or digital models where information from different subjects can be combined, is a field of increasing interest in biomedical imaging. When a single image does not contain enough information to appropriately describe the organism under study, it is then necessary to acquire images of several individuals, each of them containing complementary data with respect to the rest of the components in the cohort. This approach allows creating digital prototypes, ranging from anatomical atlases of human patients and organs, obtained for instance from Magnetic Resonance Imaging, to gene expression cartographies of embryo development, typically achieved from Light Microscopy. Within such context, in this PhD Thesis we propose, develop and validate new dedicated image processing methodologies that, based on image registration techniques, bring information from multiple individuals into alignment within a single digital atlas model. We also elaborate a dedicated software visualization platform to explore the resulting wealth of multi-dimensional data and novel analysis algo-rithms to automatically mine the generated resource in search of bio¬logical insights. In particular, this work focuses on gene expression data from developing zebrafish embryos imaged at the cellular resolution level with Two-Photon Laser Scanning Microscopy. Disposing of quantitative measurements relating multiple gene expressions to cell position and their evolution in time is a fundamental prerequisite to understand embryogenesis multi-scale processes. However, the number of gene expressions that can be simultaneously stained in one acquisition is limited due to optical and labeling constraints. These limitations motivate the implementation of atlasing strategies that can recreate a virtual gene expression multiplex. The developed computational tools have been tested in two different scenarios. The first one is the early zebrafish embryogenesis where the resulting atlas constitutes a link between the phenotype and the genotype at the cellular level. The second one is the late zebrafish brain where the resulting atlas allows studies relating gene expression to brain regionalization and neurogenesis. The proposed computational frameworks have been adapted to the requirements of both scenarios, such as the integration of partial views of the embryo into a whole embryo model with cellular resolution or the registration of anatom¬ical traits with deformable transformation models non-dependent on any specific labeling. The software implementation of the atlas generation tool (Match-IT) and the visualization platform (Atlas-IT) together with the gene expression atlas resources developed in this Thesis are to be made freely available to the scientific community. Lastly, a novel proof-of-concept experiment integrates for the first time 3D gene expression atlas resources with cell lineages extracted from live embryos, opening up the door to correlate genetic and cellular spatio-temporal dynamics. La creación de atlas, o modelos digitales, donde la información de distintos sujetos puede ser combinada, es un campo de creciente interés en imagen biomédica. Cuando una sola imagen no contiene suficientes datos como para describir apropiadamente el organismo objeto de estudio, se hace necesario adquirir imágenes de varios individuos, cada una de las cuales contiene información complementaria respecto al resto de componentes del grupo. De este modo, es posible crear prototipos digitales, que pueden ir desde atlas anatómicos de órganos y pacientes humanos, adquiridos por ejemplo mediante Resonancia Magnética, hasta cartografías de la expresión genética del desarrollo de embrionario, típicamente adquiridas mediante Microscopía Optica. Dentro de este contexto, en esta Tesis Doctoral se introducen, desarrollan y validan nuevos métodos de procesado de imagen que, basándose en técnicas de registro de imagen, son capaces de alinear imágenes y datos provenientes de múltiples individuos en un solo atlas digital. Además, se ha elaborado una plataforma de visualization específicamente diseñada para explorar la gran cantidad de datos, caracterizados por su multi-dimensionalidad, que resulta de estos métodos. Asimismo, se han propuesto novedosos algoritmos de análisis y minería de datos que permiten inspeccionar automáticamente los atlas generados en busca de conclusiones biológicas significativas. En particular, este trabajo se centra en datos de expresión genética del desarrollo embrionario del pez cebra, adquiridos mediante Microscopía dos fotones con resolución celular. Disponer de medidas cuantitativas que relacionen estas expresiones genéticas con las posiciones celulares y su evolución en el tiempo es un prerrequisito fundamental para comprender los procesos multi-escala característicos de la morfogénesis. Sin embargo, el número de expresiones genéticos que pueden ser simultáneamente etiquetados en una sola adquisición es reducido debido a limitaciones tanto ópticas como del etiquetado. Estas limitaciones requieren la implementación de estrategias de creación de atlas que puedan recrear un multiplexado virtual de expresiones genéticas. Las herramientas computacionales desarrolladas han sido validadas en dos escenarios distintos. El primer escenario es el desarrollo embrionario temprano del pez cebra, donde el atlas resultante permite constituir un vínculo, a nivel celular, entre el fenotipo y el genotipo de este organismo modelo. El segundo escenario corresponde a estadios tardíos del desarrollo del cerebro del pez cebra, donde el atlas resultante permite relacionar expresiones genéticas con la regionalización del cerebro y la formación de neuronas. La plataforma computacional desarrollada ha sido adaptada a los requisitos y retos planteados en ambos escenarios, como la integración, a resolución celular, de vistas parciales dentro de un modelo consistente en un embrión completo, o el alineamiento entre estructuras de referencia anatómica equivalentes, logrado mediante el uso de modelos de transformación deformables que no requieren ningún marcador específico. Está previsto poner a disposición de la comunidad científica tanto la herramienta de generación de atlas (Match-IT), como su plataforma de visualización (Atlas-IT), así como las bases de datos de expresión genética creadas a partir de estas herramientas. Por último, dentro de la presente Tesis Doctoral, se ha incluido una prueba conceptual innovadora que permite integrar los mencionados atlas de expresión genética tridimensionales dentro del linaje celular extraído de una adquisición in vivo de un embrión. Esta prueba conceptual abre la puerta a la posibilidad de correlar, por primera vez, las dinámicas espacio-temporales de genes y células.

Determinación de un modelo de geoide gravimétrico para Puerto Rico como sistema de referencia para las altitudes ortométricas

El geoide, definido como la superficie equipotencial que mejor se ajusta (en el sentido de los mínimos cuadrados) al nivel medio del mar en una determinada época, es la superficie que utilizamos como referencia para determinar las altitudes ortométricas. Si disponemos de una superficie equipotencial de referencia como dátum altimétrico preciso o geoide local, podemos entonces determinar las altitudes ortométricas de forma eficiente a partir de las altitudes elipsoidales proporcionadas por el Sistema Global de Navegación por Satélite (Global Navigation Satellite System, GNSS ). Como es sabido uno de los problemas no resueltos de la geodesia (quizás el más importante de los mismos en la actualidad) es la carencia de un dátum altimétrico global (Sjoberg, 2011) con las precisiones adecuadas. Al no existir un dátum altimétrico global que nos permita obtener los valores absolutos de la ondulación del geoide con la precisión requerida, es necesario emplear modelos geopotenciales como alternativa. Recientemente fue publicado el modelo EGM2008 en el que ha habido una notable mejoría de sus tres fuentes de datos, por lo que este modelo contiene coeficientes adicionales hasta el grado 2190 y orden 2159 y supone una sustancial mejora en la precisión (Pavlis et al., 2008). Cuando en una región determinada se dispone de valores de gravedad y Modelos Digitales del Terreno (MDT) de calidad, es posible obtener modelos de superficies geopotenciales más precisos y de mayor resolución que los modelos globales. Si bien es cierto que el Servicio Nacional Geodésico de los Estados Unidos de América (National Geodetic Survey, NGS) ha estado desarrollando modelos del geoide para la región de los Estados Unidos de América continentales y todos sus territorios desde la década de los noventa, también es cierto que las zonas de Puerto Rico y las Islas Vírgenes Estadounidenses han quedado un poco rezagadas al momento de poder aplicar y obtener resultados de mayor precisión con estos modelos regionales del geoide. En la actualidad, el modelo geopotencial regional vigente para la zona de Puerto Rico y las Islas Vírgenes Estadounidenses es el GEOID12A (Roman y Weston, 2012). Dada la necesidad y ante la incertidumbre de saber cuál sería el comportamiento de un modelo del geoide desarrollado única y exclusivamente con datos de gravedad locales, nos hemos dado a la tarea de desarrollar un modelo de geoide gravimétrico como sistema de referencia para las altitudes ortométricas. Para desarrollar un modelo del geoide gravimétrico en la isla de Puerto Rico, fue necesario implementar una metodología que nos permitiera analizar y validar los datos de gravedad terrestre existentes. Utilizando validación por altimetría con sistemas de información geográfica y validación matemática por colocación con el programa Gravsoft (Tscherning et al., 1994) en su modalidad en Python (Nielsen et al., 2012), fue posible validar 1673 datos de anomalías aire libre de un total de 1894 observaciones obtenidas de la base de datos del Bureau Gravimétrico Internacional (BGI). El aplicar estas metodologías nos permitió obtener una base de datos anomalías de la gravedad fiable la cual puede ser utilizada para una gran cantidad de aplicaciones en ciencia e ingeniería. Ante la poca densidad de datos de gravedad existentes, fue necesario emplear un método alternativo para densificar los valores de anomalías aire libre existentes. Empleando una metodología propuesta por Jekeli et al. (2009b) se procedió a determinar anomalías aire libre a partir de los datos de un MDT. Estas anomalías fueron ajustadas utilizando las anomalías aire libre validadas y tras aplicar un ajuste de mínimos cuadrados por zonas geográficas, fue posible obtener una malla de datos de anomalías aire libre uniforme a partir de un MDT. Tras realizar las correcciones topográficas, determinar el efecto indirecto de la topografía del terreno y la contribución del modelo geopotencial EGM2008, se obtuvo una malla de anomalías residuales. Estas anomalías residuales fueron utilizadas para determinar el geoide gravimétrico utilizando varias técnicas entre las que se encuentran la aproximación plana de la función de Stokes y las modificaciones al núcleo de Stokes, propuestas por Wong y Gore (1969), Vanicek y Kleusberg (1987) y Featherstone et al. (1998). Ya determinados los distintos modelos del geoide gravimétrico, fue necesario validar los mismos y para eso se utilizaron una serie de estaciones permanentes de la red de nivelación del Datum Vertical de Puerto Rico de 2002 (Puerto Rico Vertical Datum 2002, PRVD02 ), las cuales tenían publicados sus valores de altitud elipsoidal y elevación. Ante la ausencia de altitudes ortométricas en las estaciones permanentes de la red de nivelación, se utilizaron las elevaciones obtenidas a partir de nivelación de primer orden para determinar los valores de la ondulación del geoide geométrico (Roman et al., 2013). Tras establecer un total de 990 líneas base, se realizaron dos análisis para determinar la 'precisión' de los modelos del geoide. En el primer análisis, que consistió en analizar las diferencias entre los incrementos de la ondulación del geoide geométrico y los incrementos de la ondulación del geoide de los distintos modelos (modelos gravimétricos, EGM2008 y GEOID12A) en función de las distancias entre las estaciones de validación, se encontró que el modelo con la modificación del núcleo de Stokes propuesta por Wong y Gore presentó la mejor 'precisión' en un 91,1% de los tramos analizados. En un segundo análisis, en el que se consideraron las 990 líneas base, se determinaron las diferencias entre los incrementos de la ondulación del geoide geométrico y los incrementos de la ondulación del geoide de los distintos modelos (modelos gravimétricos, EGM2008 y GEOID12A), encontrando que el modelo que presenta la mayor 'precisión' también era el geoide con la modificación del núcleo de Stokes propuesta por Wong y Gore. En este análisis, el modelo del geoide gravimétrico de Wong y Gore presento una 'precisión' de 0,027 metros en comparación con la 'precisión' del modelo EGM2008 que fue de 0,031 metros mientras que la 'precisión' del modelo regional GEOID12A fue de 0,057 metros. Finalmente podemos decir que la metodología aquí presentada es una adecuada ya que fue posible obtener un modelo del geoide gravimétrico que presenta una mayor 'precisión' que los modelos geopotenciales disponibles, incluso superando la precisión del modelo geopotencial global EGM2008. ABSTRACT The geoid, defined as the equipotential surface that best fits (in the least squares sense) to the mean sea level at a particular time, is the surface used as a reference to determine the orthometric heights. If we have an equipotential reference surface or a precise local geoid, we can then determine the orthometric heights efficiently from the ellipsoidal heights, provided by the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). One of the most common and important an unsolved problem in geodesy is the lack of a global altimetric datum (Sjoberg, 2011)) with the appropriate precision. In the absence of one which allows us to obtain the absolute values of the geoid undulation with the required precision, it is necessary to use alternative geopotential models. The EGM2008 was recently published, in which there has been a marked improvement of its three data sources, so this model contains additional coefficients of degree up to 2190 and order 2159, and there is a substantial improvement in accuracy (Pavlis et al., 2008). When a given region has gravity values and high quality digital terrain models (DTM), it is possible to obtain more accurate regional geopotential models, with a higher resolution and precision, than global geopotential models. It is true that the National Geodetic Survey of the United States of America (NGS) has been developing geoid models for the region of the continental United States of America and its territories from the nineties, but which is also true is that areas such as Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have lagged behind when to apply and get more accurate results with these regional geopotential models. Right now, the available geopotential model for Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands is the GEOID12A (Roman y Weston, 2012). Given this need and given the uncertainty of knowing the behavior of a regional geoid model developed exclusively with data from local gravity, we have taken on the task of developing a gravimetric geoid model to use as a reference system for orthometric heights. To develop a gravimetric geoid model in the island of Puerto Rico, implementing a methodology that allows us to analyze and validate the existing terrestrial gravity data is a must. Using altimetry validation with GIS and mathematical validation by collocation with the Gravsoft suite programs (Tscherning et al., 1994) in its Python version (Nielsen et al., 2012), it was possible to validate 1673 observations with gravity anomalies values out of a total of 1894 observations obtained from the International Bureau Gravimetric (BGI ) database. Applying these methodologies allowed us to obtain a database of reliable gravity anomalies, which can be used for many applications in science and engineering. Given the low density of existing gravity data, it was necessary to employ an alternative method for densifying the existing gravity anomalies set. Employing the methodology proposed by Jekeli et al. (2009b) we proceeded to determine gravity anomaly data from a DTM. These anomalies were adjusted by using the validated free-air gravity anomalies and, after that, applying the best fit in the least-square sense by geographical area, it was possible to obtain a uniform grid of free-air anomalies obtained from a DTM. After applying the topographic corrections, determining the indirect effect of topography and the contribution of the global geopotential model EGM2008, a grid of residual anomalies was obtained. These residual anomalies were used to determine the gravimetric geoid by using various techniques, among which are the planar approximation of the Stokes function and the modifications of the Stokes kernel, proposed by Wong y Gore (1969), Vanicek y Kleusberg (1987) and Featherstone et al. (1998). After determining the different gravimetric geoid models, it was necessary to validate them by using a series of stations of the Puerto Rico Vertical Datum of 2002 (PRVD02) leveling network. These stations had published its values of ellipsoidal height and elevation, and in the absence of orthometric heights, we use the elevations obtained from first - order leveling to determine the geometric geoid undulation (Roman et al., 2013). After determine a total of 990 baselines, two analyzes were performed to determine the ' accuracy ' of the geoid models. The first analysis was to analyze the differences between the increments of the geometric geoid undulation with the increments of the geoid undulation of the different geoid models (gravimetric models, EGM2008 and GEOID12A) in function of the distance between the validation stations. Through this analysis, it was determined that the model with the modified Stokes kernel given by Wong and Gore had the best 'accuracy' in 91,1% for the analyzed baselines. In the second analysis, in which we considered the 990 baselines, we analyze the differences between the increments of the geometric geoid undulation with the increments of the geoid undulation of the different geoid models (gravimetric models, EGM2008 and GEOID12A) finding that the model with the highest 'accuracy' was also the model with modifying Stokes kernel given by Wong and Gore. In this analysis, the Wong and Gore gravimetric geoid model presented an 'accuracy' of 0,027 meters in comparison with the 'accuracy' of global geopotential model EGM2008, which gave us an 'accuracy' of 0,031 meters, while the 'accuracy ' of the GEOID12A regional model was 0,057 meters. Finally we can say that the methodology presented here is adequate as it was possible to obtain a gravimetric geoid model that has a greater 'accuracy' than the geopotential models available, even surpassing the accuracy of global geopotential model EGM2008.

Spatial analysis of geometric design consistency and road sight distance

Because of the high number of crashes occurring on highways, it is necessary to intensify the search for new tools that help in understanding their causes. This research explores the use of a geographic information system (GIS) for an integrated analysis, taking into account two accident-related factors: design consistency (DC) (based on vehicle speed) and available sight distance (ASD) (based on visibility). Both factors require specific GIS software add-ins, which are explained. Digital terrain models (DTMs), vehicle paths, road centerlines, a speed prediction model, and crash data are integrated in the GIS. The usefulness of this approach has been assessed through a study of more than 500 crashes. From a regularly spaced grid, the terrain (bare ground) has been modeled through a triangulated irregular network (TIN). The length of the roads analyzed is greater than 100 km. Results have shown that DC and ASD could be related to crashes in approximately 4% of cases. In order to illustrate the potential of GIS, two crashes are fully analyzed: a car rollover after running off road on the right side and a rear-end collision of two moving vehicles. Although this procedure uses two software add-ins that are available only for ArcGIS, the study gives a practical demonstration of the suitability of GIS for conducting integrated studies of road safety.

LiDAR remote sensing applied to forest resources assessment

Disponer de información precisa y actualizada de inventario forestal es una pieza clave para mejorar la gestión forestal sostenible y para proponer y evaluar políticas de conservación de bosques que permitan la reducción de emisiones de carbono debidas a la deforestación y degradación forestal (REDD). En este sentido, la tecnología LiDAR ha demostrado ser una herramienta perfecta para caracterizar y estimar de forma continua y en áreas extensas la estructura del bosque y las principales variables de inventario forestal. Variables como la biomasa, el número de pies, el volumen de madera, la altura dominante, el diámetro o la altura media son estimadas con una calidad comparable a los inventarios tradicionales de campo. La presente tesis se centra en analizar la aplicación de los denominados métodos de masa de inventario forestal con datos LIDAR bajo diferentes condiciones y características de masa forestal (bosque templados puros y mixtos) y utilizando diferentes bases de datos LiDAR (información proveniente de vuelo nacionales e información capturada de forma específica). Como consecuencia de lo anterior, se profundiza en la generación de inventarios forestales continuos con LiDAR en grandes áreas. Los métodos de masa se basan en la búsqueda de relaciones estadísticas entre variables predictoras derivadas de la nube de puntos LiDAR y las variables de inventario forestal medidas en campo con el objeto de generar una cartografía continua de inventario forestal. El rápido desarrollo de esta tecnología en los últimos años ha llevado a muchos países a implantar programas nacionales de captura de información LiDAR aerotransportada. Estos vuelos nacionales no están pensados ni diseñados para fines forestales por lo que es necesaria la evaluación de la validez de esta información LiDAR para la descripción de la estructura del bosque y la medición de variables forestales. Esta información podría suponer una drástica reducción de costes en la generación de información continua de alta resolución de inventario forestal. En el capítulo 2 se evalúa la estimación de variables forestales a partir de la información LiDAR capturada en el marco del Plan Nacional de Ortofotografía Aérea (PNOA-LiDAR) en España. Para ello se compara un vuelo específico diseñado para inventario forestal con la información de la misma zona capturada dentro del PNOA-LiDAR. El caso de estudio muestra cómo el ángulo de escaneo, la pendiente y orientación del terreno afectan de forma estadísticamente significativa, aunque con pequeñas diferencias, a la estimación de biomasa y variables de estructura forestal derivadas del LiDAR. La cobertura de copas resultó más afectada por estos factores que los percentiles de alturas. Considerando toda la zona de estudio, la estimación de la biomasa con ambas bases de datos no presentó diferencias estadísticamente significativas. Las simulaciones realizadas muestran que las diferencias medias en la estimación de biomasa entre un vuelo específico y el vuelo nacional podrán superar el 4% en áreas abruptas, con ángulos de escaneo altos y cuando la pendiente de la ladera no esté orientada hacia la línea de escaneo. En el capítulo 3 se desarrolla un estudio en masas mixtas y puras de pino silvestre y haya, con un enfoque multi-fuente empleando toda la información disponible (vuelos LiDAR nacionales de baja densidad de puntos, imágenes satelitales Landsat y parcelas permanentes del inventario forestal nacional español). Se concluye que este enfoque multi-fuente es adecuado para realizar inventarios forestales continuos de alta resolución en grandes superficies. Los errores obtenidos en la fase de ajuste y de validación de los modelos de área basimétrica y volumen son similares a los registrados por otros autores (usando un vuelo específico y parcelas de campo específicas). Se observan errores mayores en la variable número de pies que los encontrados en la literatura, que pueden ser explicados por la influencia de la metodología de parcelas de radio variable en esta variable. En los capítulos 4 y 5 se evalúan los métodos de masa para estimar biomasa y densidad de carbono en bosques tropicales. Para ello se trabaja con datos del Parque Nacional Volcán Poás (Costa Rica) en dos situaciones diferentes: i) se dispone de una cobertura completa LiDAR del área de estudio (capitulo 4) y ii) la cobertura LiDAR completa no es técnica o económicamente posible y se combina una cobertura incompleta de LiDAR con imágenes Landsat e información auxiliar para la estimación de biomasa y carbono (capitulo 5). En el capítulo 4 se valida un modelo LiDAR general de estimación de biomasa aérea en bosques tropicales y se compara con los resultados obtenidos con un modelo ajustado de forma específica para el área de estudio. Ambos modelos están basados en la variable altura media de copas (TCH por sus siglas en inglés) derivada del modelo digital LiDAR de altura de la vegetación. Los resultados en el área de estudio muestran que el modelo general es una alternativa fiable al ajuste de modelos específicos y que la biomasa aérea puede ser estimada en una nueva zona midiendo en campo únicamente la variable área basimétrica (BA). Para mejorar la aplicación de esta metodología es necesario definir en futuros trabajos procedimientos adecuados de medición de la variable área basimétrica en campo (localización, tamaño y forma de las parcelas de campo). La relación entre la altura media de copas del LiDAR y el área basimétrica (Coeficiente de Stock) obtenida en el área de estudio varía localmente. Por tanto es necesario contar con más información de campo para caracterizar la variabilidad del Coeficiente de Stock entre zonas de vida y si estrategias como la estratificación pueden reducir los errores en la estimación de biomasa y carbono en bosques tropicales. En el capítulo 5 se concluye que la combinación de una muestra sistemática de información LiDAR con una cobertura completa de imagen satelital de moderada resolución (e información auxiliar) es una alternativa efectiva para la realización de inventarios continuos en bosques tropicales. Esta metodología permite estimar altura de la vegetación, biomasa y carbono en grandes zonas donde la captura de una cobertura completa de LiDAR y la realización de un gran volumen de trabajo de campo es económica o/y técnicamente inviable. Las alternativas examinadas para la predicción de biomasa a partir de imágenes Landsat muestran una ligera disminución del coeficiente de determinación y un pequeño aumento del RMSE cuando la cobertura de LiDAR es reducida de forma considerable. Los resultados indican que la altura de la vegetación, la biomasa y la densidad de carbono pueden ser estimadas en bosques tropicales de forma adecuada usando coberturas de LIDAR bajas (entre el 5% y el 20% del área de estudio). ABSTRACT The availability of accurate and updated forest data is essential for improving sustainable forest management, promoting forest conservation policies and reducing carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD). In this sense, LiDAR technology proves to be a clear-cut tool for characterizing forest structure in large areas and assessing main forest-stand variables. Forest variables such as biomass, stem volume, basal area, mean diameter, mean height, dominant height, and stem number can be thus predicted with better or comparable quality than with costly traditional field inventories. In this thesis, it is analysed the potential of LiDAR technology for the estimation of plot-level forest variables under a range of conditions (conifer & broadleaf temperate forests and tropical forests) and different LiDAR capture characteristics (nationwide LiDAR information vs. specific forest LiDAR data). This study evaluates the application of LiDAR-based plot-level methods in large areas. These methods are based on statistical relationships between predictor variables (derived from airborne data) and field-measured variables to generate wall to wall forest inventories. The fast development of this technology in recent years has led to an increasing availability of national LiDAR datasets, usually developed for multiple purposes throughout an expanding number of countries and regions. The evaluation of the validity of nationwide LiDAR databases (not designed specifically for forest purposes) is needed and presents a great opportunity for substantially reducing the costs of forest inventories. In chapter 2, the suitability of Spanish nationwide LiDAR flight (PNOA) to estimate forest variables is analyzed and compared to a specifically forest designed LiDAR flight. This study case shows that scan angle, terrain slope and aspect significantly affect the assessment of most of the LiDAR-derived forest variables and biomass estimation. Especially, the estimation of canopy cover is more affected than height percentiles. Considering the entire study area, biomass estimations from both databases do not show significant differences. Simulations show that differences in biomass could be larger (more than 4%) only in particular situations, such as steep areas when the slopes are non-oriented towards the scan lines and the scan angles are larger than 15º. In chapter 3, a multi-source approach is developed, integrating available databases such as nationwide LiDAR flights, Landsat imagery and permanent field plots from SNFI, with good resultos in the generation of wall to wall forest inventories. Volume and basal area errors are similar to those obtained by other authors (using specific LiDAR flights and field plots) for the same species. Errors in the estimation of stem number are larger than literature values as a consequence of the great influence that variable-radius plots, as used in SNFI, have on this variable. In chapters 4 and 5 wall to wall plot-level methodologies to estimate aboveground biomass and carbon density in tropical forest are evaluated. The study area is located in the Poas Volcano National Park (Costa Rica) and two different situations are analyzed: i) available complete LiDAR coverage (chapter 4) and ii) a complete LiDAR coverage is not available and wall to wall estimation is carried out combining LiDAR, Landsat and ancillary data (chapter 5). In chapter 4, a general aboveground biomass plot-level LiDAR model for tropical forest (Asner & Mascaro, 2014) is validated and a specific model for the study area is fitted. Both LiDAR plot-level models are based on the top-of-canopy height (TCH) variable that is derived from the LiDAR digital canopy model. Results show that the pantropical plot-level LiDAR methodology is a reliable alternative to the development of specific models for tropical forests and thus, aboveground biomass in a new study area could be estimated by only measuring basal area (BA). Applying this methodology, the definition of precise BA field measurement procedures (e.g. location, size and shape of the field plots) is decisive to achieve reliable results in future studies. The relation between BA and TCH (Stocking Coefficient) obtained in our study area in Costa Rica varied locally. Therefore, more field work is needed for assessing Stocking Coefficient variations between different life zones and the influence of the stratification of the study areas in tropical forests on the reduction of uncertainty. In chapter 5, the combination of systematic LiDAR information sampling and full coverage Landsat imagery (and ancillary data) prove to be an effective alternative for forest inventories in tropical areas. This methodology allows estimating wall to wall vegetation height, biomass and carbon density in large areas where full LiDAR coverage and traditional field work are technically and/or economically unfeasible. Carbon density prediction using Landsat imaginery shows a slight decrease in the determination coefficient and an increase in RMSE when harshly decreasing LiDAR coverage area. Results indicate that feasible estimates of vegetation height, biomass and carbon density can be accomplished using low LiDAR coverage areas (between 5% and 20% of the total area) in tropical locations.

3D TerraFly: Quality of service management for online interactive 3D geographic information system

3D geographic information system (GIS) is data and computation intensive in nature. Internet users are usually equipped with low-end personal computers and network connections of limited bandwidth. Data reduction and performance optimization techniques are of critical importance in quality of service (QoS) management for online 3D GIS. In this research, QoS management issues regarding distributed 3D GIS presentation were studied to develop 3D TerraFly, an interactive 3D GIS that supports high quality online terrain visualization and navigation. ^ To tackle the QoS management challenges, multi-resolution rendering model, adaptive level of detail (LOD) control and mesh simplification algorithms were proposed to effectively reduce the terrain model complexity. The rendering model is adaptively decomposed into sub-regions of up-to-three detail levels according to viewing distance and other dynamic quality measurements. The mesh simplification algorithm was designed as a hybrid algorithm that combines edge straightening and quad-tree compression to reduce the mesh complexity by removing geometrically redundant vertices. The main advantage of this mesh simplification algorithm is that grid mesh can be directly processed in parallel without triangulation overhead. Algorithms facilitating remote accessing and distributed processing of volumetric GIS data, such as data replication, directory service, request scheduling, predictive data retrieving and caching were also proposed. ^ A prototype of the proposed 3D TerraFly implemented in this research demonstrates the effectiveness of our proposed QoS management framework in handling interactive online 3D GIS. The system implementation details and future directions of this research are also addressed in this thesis. ^

A suite of global, cross-scale topographic variables for environmental and biodiversity modeling, links to files in GeoTIFF format

Topographic variation, the spatial variation in elevation and terrain features, underpins a myriad of patterns and processes in geography and ecology and is key to understanding the variation of life on the planet. The characterization of this variation is scale-dependent, i.e. it varies with the distance over which features are assessed and with the spatial grain (grid cell resolution) of analysis. A fully standardized and global multivariate product of different terrain features has the potential to support many large-scale basic research and analytical applications, however to date, such technique is unavailable. Here we used the digital elevation model products of global 250 m GMTED and near-global 90 m SRTM to derive a suite of topographic variables: elevation, slope, aspect, eastness, northness, roughness, terrain roughness index, topographic position index, vector ruggedness measure, profile and tangential curvature, and 10 geomorphological landform classes. We aggregated each variable to 1, 5, 10, 50 and 100 km spatial grains using several aggregation approaches (median, average, minimum, maximum, standard deviation, percent cover, count, majority, Shannon Index, entropy, uniformity). While a global cross-correlation underlines the high similarity of many variables, a more detailed view in four mountain regions reveals local differences, as well as scale variations in the aggregated variables at different spatial grains. All newly-developed variables are available for download at http://www.earthenv.org and can serve as a basis for standardized hydrological, environmental and biodiversity modeling at a global extent.

Using UAV acquired photography and structure from motion techniques for studying glacier landforms: application to the glacial flutes at Isfallsglaciären

Glacier and ice sheet retreat exposes freshly deglaciated terrain which often contains small-scale fragile geomorphological features which could provide insight into subglacial or submarginal processes. Subaerial exposure results in potentially rapid landscape modification or even disappearance of the minor–relief landforms as wind, weather, water and vegetation impacts on the newly exposed surface. Ongoing retreat of many ice masses means there is a growing opportunity to obtain high resolution geospatial data from glacier forelands to aid in the understanding of recent subglacial and submarginal processes. Here we used an unmanned aerial vehicle to capture close-range aerial photography of the foreland of Isfallsglaciären, a small polythermal glacier situated in Swedish Lapland. An orthophoto and a digital elevation model with ~2 cm horizontal resolution were created from this photography using structure from motion software. These geospatial data was used to create a geomorphological map of the foreland, documenting moraines, fans, channels and flutes. The unprecedented resolution of the data enabled us to derive morphological metrics (length, width and relief) of the smallest flutes, which is not possible with other data products normally used for glacial landform metrics mapping. The map and flute metrics compare well with previous studies, highlighting the potential of this technique for rapidly documenting glacier foreland geomorphology at an unprecedented scale and resolution. The vast majority of flutes were found to have an associated stoss-side boulder, with the remainder having a likely explanation for boulder absence (burial or erosion). Furthermore, the size of this boulder was found to strongly correlate with the width and relief of the lee-side flute. This is consistent with the lee-side cavity infill model of flute formation. Whether this model is applicable to all flutes, or multiple mechanisms are required, awaits further study.

Building digital capability: Employability lens on the Six Elements of Digital Capability

This is a version of the Jisc ‘Six Elements of Digital Capabilities’ model, developed to support student-facing sta working in Careers and Employability roles and curriculum sta working to embed employability issues into the curriculum. It draws on the work of the Jisc Developing Student Employability project e.g. on the model of the ‘employable student’ produced by Peter Chatterton for that project.

A REMOTE SENSING APPROACH TO CHARACTERIZE THE HYDROGEOLOGY OF MOUNTAINOUS AREAS: APPLICATION TO THE QUITO AQUIFER SYSTEM (QAS), ECUADOR

Climate change, intensive use, and population growth are threatening the availability of water resources. New sources of water, better knowledge of existing ones, and improved water management strategies are of paramount importance. Ground water is often considered as primary water source due to its advantages in terms of quantity, spatial distribution, and natural quality. Remote sensing techniques afford scientists a unique opportunity to characterize landscapes in order to assess groundwater resources, particularly in tectonically influenced areas. Aquifers in volcanic basins are considered the most productive aquifers in Latin America. Although topography is considered the primary driving force for groundwater flows in mountainous terrains, tectonic activity increases the complexity of these groundwater systems by altering the integrity of sedimentary rock units and the overlying drainage networks. Structural controls affect the primary hydraulic properties of the rock formations by developing barriers to flow in some cases and zones of preferential infiltration and subterranean in others. The study area focuses on the Quito Aquifer System (QAS) in Ecuador. The characterization of the hydrogeology started with a lineament analysis based on a combined remote sensing and digital terrain analysis approach. The application of classical tools for regional hydrogeological evaluation and shallow geophysical methods were useful to evaluate the impact of faulting and fracturing on the aquifer system. Given the spatial extension of the area and the complexity of the system, two levels of analysis were applied in this study. At the regional level, a lineament map was created for the QAS. Relationships between fractures, faults and lineaments and the configuration of the groundwater flow on the QAS were determined. At the local level, on the Plateaus region of the QAS, a detailed lineament map was obtained by using high-spatial-resolution satellite imagery and aspect map derived from a digital elevation model (DEM). This map was complemented by the analysis of morphotectonic indicators and shallow geophysics that characterize fracture patterns. The development of the groundwater flow system was studied, drawing upon data pertaining to the aquifer system physical characteristics and topography. Hydrochemistry was used to ascertain the groundwater evolution and verify the correspondence of the flow patterns proposed in the flow system analysis. Isotopic analysis was employed to verify the origin of groundwater. The results of this study show that tectonism plays a very important role for the hydrology of the QAS. The results also demonstrate that faults influence a great deal of the topographic characteristics of the QAS and subsequently the configuration of the groundwater flow. Moreover, for the Plateaus region, the results demonstrate that the aquifer flow systems are affected by secondary porosity. This is a new conceptualization of the functioning of the aquifers on the QAS that will significantly contribute to the development of better strategies for the management of this important water resource.

EFEITOS DE CENÁRIOS DE USO DO SOLO NA VAZÃO E PRODUÇÃO DE SEDIMENTOS NA BACIA DO RIO COBRES, PORTUGAL

Introdução Caracterização da área de estudo Materiais e métodos O modelo SWAT Dados de chuva, vazão e produção de sedimentos Tipos de solos e determinação dos parâmetros do SWAT Análises Estatísticas Cenários de Uso do Solo Resultados e discussões Estimativa da Vazão Estimativa da produção de sedimentos Modelagem Hidrossedimentológica em Diferentes Cenários Conclusões Referências bibliográficas RESUMO – A erosão dos solos é um dos mais graves problemas ambientais em todo o mundo, principalmente em regiões semiáridas que sofrem com a variabilidade espaço-temporal da precipitação. Este artigo analisou os processos hidrossedimentológicos na Bacia do Rio Cobres, localizada na porção semiárida de Portugal, utilizando o modelo SWAT. Neste estudo foram utilizados dados diários de precipitação, temperatura, umidade do ar, vazão e produção de sedimentos, para o período de 1960 a 2000, mapas digitais de elevação do terreno com resolução espacial de 90 m, uso e ocupação do solo e tipos de solo da bacia. Os resultados demonstraram a eficácia do modelo na calibração da vazão, com Coeficiente de Determinação (R²) = 0,81 e Coeficiente de Nash-Sutcliffe (NS) = 0,63, e também para produção de sedimentos com R² = 0,62 e NS = 0,47. O Cenário 3 (Mata) apresentou o maior decréscimo na vazão média, em relação aos Cenários 1 (Real) e 2 (Pastagem). Conclui-se que o modelo SWAT acoplado ao SIG é uma ferramenta poderosa na análise espaço-temporal do comportamento dos processos hidrossedimentológicos. Palavas-chave: SIG, modelo hidrossedimentológico, erosão ABSTRACT – Effects of Scenarios of Land Use on Runoff and Sediment Yield for Cobres River Basin, Portugal. Soil erosion is a major environmental problem worldwide, mainly in semiarid regions that suffer with rainfall spatial and temporal variability. Thus, this paper analysed the runoff-erosion process at the Cobres River Basin, located in semiarid portion of Portugal, using the SWAT model. In this paper, rainfall, temperature and humidity data from 1960 to 2000, and digital maps of land cover, terrain digital elevation model with spatial resolution of 90 m, soil types were used. The results showed the effectiveness of the model for the runoff calibration, with R² = 0.81 and NS = 0.63, and also for sediment yield with R² = 0.62 and NS = 0.47. Scenario 1 (Forest) had the highest decrease in average streamflow, in relation to the Scenarios 1 (Real) and 2 (Pasture) scenarios. It is concluded that the SWAT model coupled to GIS is a powerful tool in the analysis of temporal and spatial behaviour of runoff-erosion processes.

Espacialização da temperatura do ar anual no estado de Alagoas com diferentes modelos digitais de elevação e resoluções espaciais

The aim of this study was to establish a digital elevation model and its horizontal resolution to interpolate the annual air temperature for the Alagoas State by means of multiple linear regression models. A multiple linear regression model was adjusted to series (11 to 34 years) of annual air temperatures obtained from 28 weather stations in the states of Alagoas, Bahia, Pernambuco and Sergipe, in the Northeast of Brazil, in function of latitude, longitude and altitude. The elevation models SRTM and GTOPO30 were used in the analysis, with original resolutions of 90 and 900 m, respectively. The SRTM was resampled for horizontal resolutions of 125, 250, 500, 750 and 900 m. For spatializing the annual mean air temperature for the state of Alagoas, a multiple linear regression model was used for each elevation and spatial resolution on a grid of the latitude and longitude. In Alagoas, estimates based on SRTM data resulted in a standard error of estimate (0.57 degrees C) and dispersion (r(2) = 0.62) lower than those obtained from GTOPO30 (0.93 degrees C and 0.20). In terms of SRTM resolutions, no significant differences were observed between the standard error (0.55 degrees C; 750 m - 0.58 degrees C; 250m) and dispersion (0.60; 500 m - 0.65; 750 m) estimates. The spatialization of annual air temperature in Alagoas, via multiple regression models applied to SRTM data showed higher concordance than that obtained with the GTOPO30, independent of the spatial resolution.