Inorganic Nanoparticle-Modified Poly(Phenylene Sulphide)/ Carbon Fiber Laminates: Thermomechanical Behaviour

Carbon fiber (CF)-reinforced high-temperature thermoplastics such as poly(phenylene sulphide) (PPS) are widely used in structural composites for aerospace and automotive applications. The porosity of CF-reinforced polymers is a very important topic for practical applications since there is a direct correlation between void content and mechanical properties. In this study, inorganic fullerene-like tungsten disulphide (IF-WS2) lubricant nanoparticles were used to manufacture PPS/IF-WS2/CF laminates via melt-blending and hot-press processing, and the effect of IF-WS2 loading on the quality, thermal and mechanical behaviour of the hybrid composites was investigated. The addition of IF-WS2 improved fiber impregnation, resulting in lower degree of porosity and increased delamination resistance, compression and flexural properties; their reinforcement effect was greater at temperatures above the glass transition (Tg). IF-WS2 contents higher than 0.5 wt % increased Tg and the heat deflection temperature while reduced the coefficient of thermal expansion. The multiscale laminates exhibited higher ignition point and notably reduced peak heat release rate compared to PPS/CF. The coexistence of micro- and nano-scale fillers resulted in synergistic effects that enhanced the stiffness, strength, thermal conductivity and flame retardancy of the matrix. The results presented herein demonstrate that the IF-WS2 are very promising nanofillers to improve the thermomechanical properties of conventional thermoplastic/CF composites.

Methodology of quantifying curvature of Fresnel lenses and its effect on CPV module performance

Fresnel lenses used as primary optics in concentrating photovoltaic modules may show warping produced by lens manufacturing or module assembly (e.g., stress during molding or weight load) or due to stress during operation (e.g., mismatch of thermal expansion between different materials). To quantify this problem, a simple method called “checkerboard method” is presented. The proposed method identifies shape errors on the front surface of primary lenses by analyzing the Fresnel reflections. This paper also deals with the quantification of the effects these curvatures have on their optical performance and on the electrical performance of concentrating modules incorporating them. This method can be used to perform quality control of Fresnel lenses in scenarios of high volume production.

Análisis del comportamiento a fatiga de uniones adhesivas de acero recubierto

Los adhesivos se conocen y han sido utilizados en multitud de aplicaciones a lo lago de la historia. En la actualidad, la tecnología de la adhesión como método de unión de materiales estructurales está en pleno crecimiento. Los avances científicos han permitido comprender mejor los fenómenos de adhesión, así como, mejorar y desarrollar nuevas formulaciones poliméricas que incrementan el rango de aplicaciones de los adhesivos. Por otro lado, el desarrollo de nuevos materiales y la necesidad de aligerar peso, especialmente en el sector transporte, hace que las uniones adhesivas se introduzcan en aplicaciones hasta ahora reservadas a otros sistemas de unión como la soldadura o las uniones mecánicas, ofreciendo rendimientos similares y, en ocasiones, superiores a los aportados por estas. Las uniones adhesivas ofrecen numerosas ventajas frente a otros sistemas de unión. En la industria aeronáutica y en automoción, las uniones adhesivas logran una reducción en el número de componentes (tales como los tornillos, remaches, abrazaderas) consiguiendo como consecuencia diseños más ligeros y una disminución de los costes de manipulación y almacenamiento, así como una aceleración de los procesos de ensamblaje, y como consecuencia, un aumento de los procesos de producción. En el sector de la construcción y en la fabricación de equipos industriales, se busca la capacidad para soportar la expansión y contracción térmica. Por lo tanto, se usan las uniones adhesivas para evitar producir la distorsión del sustrato al no ser necesario el calentamiento ni la deformación de las piezas cuando se someten a un calentamiento elevado y muy localizado, como en el caso de la soldadura, o cuando se someten a esfuerzos mecánicos localizados, en el caso de montajes remachados. En la industria naval, se están desarrollando técnicas de reparación basadas en la unión adhesiva para distribuir de forma más uniforme y homogénea las tensiones con el objetivo de mejorar el comportamiento frente a fatiga y evitar los problemas asociados a las técnicas de reparación habituales de corte y soldadura. Las uniones adhesivas al no requerir importantes aportes de calor como la soldadura, no producen modificaciones microestructurales indeseables como sucede en la zona fundida o en la zona afectada térmicamente de las uniones soldadas, ni deteriora los recubrimientos protectores de metales de bajo punto de fusión o de naturaleza orgánica. Sin embargo, las uniones adhesivas presentan una desventaja que dificulta su aplicación, se trata de su durabilidad a largo plazo. La primera causa de rotura de los materiales es la rotura por fatiga. Este proceso de fallo es la causa del 85% de las roturas de los materiales estructurales en servicio. La rotura por fatiga se produce cuando se somete al material a la acción de cargas que varían cíclicamente o a vibraciones durante un tiempo prolongado. Las uniones y estructuras sometidas a fatiga pueden fallar a niveles de carga por debajo del límite de resistencia estática del material. La rotura por fatiga en las uniones adhesivas no se produce por un proceso de iniciación y propagación de grieta de forma estable, el proceso de fatiga va debilitando poco a poco la unión hasta que llega un momento que provoca una rotura de forma rápida. Underhill explica este mecanismo como un proceso de daño irreversible de los enlaces más débiles en determinados puntos de la unión. Cuando se ha producido el deterioro de estas zonas más débiles, su área se va incrementando hasta que llega un momento en que la zona dañada es tan amplia que se produce el fallo completo de la unión. En ensayos de crecimiento de grieta realizados sobre probetas preagrietadas en viga con doble voladizo (DCB), Dessureault identifica los procesos de iniciación y crecimiento de grietas en muestras unidas con adhesivo epoxi como una acumulación de microfisuras en la zona próxima al fondo de grieta que, luego, van coalesciendo para configurar la grieta principal. Lo que supone, igualmente, un proceso de daño del adhesivo en la zona de mayor concentración de tensiones que, posteriormente, conduce al fallo de la unión. La presente tesis surge con el propósito de aumentar los conocimientos existentes sobre el comportamiento a fatiga de las uniones adhesivas y especialmente las realizadas con dos tipos de adhesivos estructurales aplicados en aceros con diferentes acabados superficiales. El estudio incluye la obtención de las curvas de tensión frente al número de ciclos hasta el fallo del componente, curvas SN o curvas de Wöhler, que permitirán realizar una estimación de la resistencia a la fatiga de un determinado material o estructura. Los ensayos de fatiga realizados mediante ciclos predeterminados de carga sinusoidales, de amplitud y frecuencia constantes, han permitido caracterizar el comportamiento a la fatiga por el número de ciclos hasta la rotura, siendo el límite de fatiga el valor al que tiende la tensión cuando el número de ciclos es muy grande. En algunos materiales, la fatiga no tiende a un valor límite sino que decrece de forma constante a medida que aumenta el número de ciclos. Para estas situaciones, se ha definido la resistencia a la fatiga (o límite de resistencia) por la tensión en que se produce la rotura para un número de ciclos predeterminado. Todos estos aspectos permitirán un mejor diseño de las uniones y las condiciones de trabajo de los adhesivos con el fin de lograr que la resistencia a fatiga de la unión sea mucho más duradera y el comportamiento total de la unión sea mucho mejor, contribuyendo al crecimiento de la utilización de las uniones adhesivas respecto a otras técnicas. ABSTRACT Adhesives are well-known and have been used in many applications throughout history. At present, adhesion bonding technology of structural materials is experiencing an important growth. Scientific advances have enabled a better understanding of the phenomena of adhesion, as well as to improve and develop new polymeric formulations that increase the range of applications. On the other hand, the development of new materials and the need to save weight, especially in the transport sector, have promote the use of adhesive bonding in many applications previously reserved for other joining technologies such as welded or mechanical joints, presenting similar or even higher performances. Adhesive bonding offers many advantages over other joining methods. For example, in the aeronautic industry and in the automation sector, adhesive bonding allows a reduction in the number of components (such as bolts, rivets, clamps) and as consequence, resulting in lighter designs and a decrease in handling and storage costs, as well as faster assembly processes and an improvement in the production processes. In the construction sector and in the industrial equipment manufacturing, the ability to withstand thermal expansion and contraction is required. Therefore, adhesion bonding technology is used to avoid any distortion of the substrate since this technology does not require heating nor the deformation of the pieces when these are exposed to very high and localized heating, as in welding, or when are subjected to localized mechanical stresses in the case of riveted joints. In the naval industry, repair techniques based in the adhesive bonding are being developed in order to distribute stresses more uniform and homogeneously in order to improve the performance against fatigue and to avoid the problems associated with standard repair techniques as cutting and welding. Adhesive bonding does not require the use of high temperatures and as consequence they do not produce undesirable microstructural changes, as it can be observed in molten zones or in heat-affected zones in the case of welding, neither is there damage of the protective coating of metals with low melting points or polymeric films. However, adhesive bonding presents a disadvantage that limits its application, the low longterm durability. The most common cause of fractures of materials is fatigue fracture. This failure process is the cause of 85% of the fracture of structural materials in service. Fatigue failure occurs when the materials are subjected to the action of cyclic loads or vibrations for a long period of time. The joints and structures subjected to fatigue can fail at stress values below the static strength of the material. Fatigue failure do not occurs by a static and homogeneous process of initiation and propagation of crack. The fatigue process gradually weakens the bond until the moment in which the fracture occurs very rapidly. Underhill explains this mechanism as a process of irreversible damage of the weakest links at certain points of the bonding. When the deterioration in these weaker zones occurs, their area increase until the damage zone is so extensive that the full failure of the joint occurs. During the crack growth tests performed on precracked double-cantilever beam specimen, (DCB), Dessureault identified the processes of crack initiation and growth in samples bonded with epoxy adhesive as a process of accumulation of microcracks on the zone near the crack bottom, then, they coalesced to configure the main crack. This is a damage process of the adhesive in the zone of high stress concentration that leads to failure of the bond. This thesis aims to further the understanding of the fatigue behavior of the adhesive bonding, primarily those based on two different types of structural adhesives used on carbon-steel with different surface treatments. This memory includes the analysis of the SN or Wöhler curves (stress vs. number of cycles curves up to the failure), allowing to carry out an estimation of the fatigue strength of a specific material or structure. The fatigue tests carried out by means of predetermined cycles of sinusoidal loads, with a constant amplitude and frequency, allow the characterisation of the fatigue behaviour. For some materials, there is a maximum stress amplitude below which the material never fails for any number of cycles, known as fatigue limit. In the other hand, for other materials, the fatigue does not tend toward a limit value but decreases constantly as the number of cycles increases. For these situations, the fatigue strength is defined by the stress at which the fracture occurs for a predetermined number of cycles. All these aspects will enable a better joint design and service conditions of adhesives in order to get more durable joints from the fatigue failure point of view and in this way contribute to increase the use of adhesive bonding over other joint techniques.

Recubrimientos autolubricantes cuasicristalinos tipo composite depositados mediante proyección térmica para aplicaciones espaciales y de alta temperatura

Los recubrimientos lubricantes sólidos son requeridos para reducir la fricción y prevenir el desgaste en componentes que operan a altas temperaturas o en vacío (vehículos espaciales, industria química, motores diésel, turbinas aeronáuticas y de generación de energía…). Los lubricantes líquidos pierden sus características cuando las condiciones de presión, temperatura o ambientales son severas (oxidación, inestabilidad térmica, volatilidad,…), por ejemplo los aceites minerales convencionales se descomponen a temperaturas próximas a 200 ºC. Por tanto, la única manera de poder conseguir una adecuada lubricación a temperaturas extremas es por medio de sólidos, que cada vez más, se aplican en forma de recubrimientos. Estos recubrimientos podrían ser empleados en componentes de vehículos espaciales reutilizables, donde se pueden alcanzar, en la reentrada en la atmósfera, temperaturas de 700 ºC (bisagras, rodamientos, articulaciones y zonas de sellado en las superficies de control, y rodamientos de las turbobombas y las cajas de engranajes). Dichos recubrimientos también deberían ser capaces de proporcionar una lubricación efectiva a bajas temperaturas para las operaciones en tierra, para las operaciones de arranque en frío, incluso en el espacio. El conjunto de requisitos que tendrían que satisfacer las capas tribológicas relacionadas con estas condiciones extremas es muy diverso, lo que hace que el concepto de capas tipo composite (aquéllas constituidas por varios componentes) sea, en principio, muy adecuado para estas aplicaciones. Recubrimientos composite proyectados térmicamente constituidos por una matriz dura y conteniendo lubricantes sólidos pueden ser una buena solución desde el punto de vista tribológico. El “Lewis Research Centre” de la NASA ha estado desarrollando recubrimientos autolubricantes tipo composite, constituidos por la combinación de materiales duros como el carburo de cromo, junto con lubricantes sólidos como plata o la eutéctica de fluoruros de calcio y bario, en una matriz de NiCr, para su uso en aplicaciones terrestres a alta temperatura. Estos recubrimientos han sido aplicados mediante proyección térmica, siendo denominados como series PS100, PS200, PS300 y PS400, reduciendo de forma significativa el coeficiente de fricción y mejorando la resistencia al desgaste en un amplio margen de temperaturas. Otra nueva familia de materiales con comportamiento tribológico prometedor son las aleaciones cuasicristalinas (QC). Presentan características muy atractivas: alta dureza, baja fricción, alto límite elástico de compresión... Son muy frágiles como materiales másicos, por lo que se intentan aplicar en forma de recubrimientos. Se pueden depositar mediante proyección térmica. Algunos de estos materiales cuasicristalinos, como AlCoFeCr, poseen coeficientes de dilatación próximos al de los materiales metálicos, alta estabilidad térmica, baja conductividad térmica y una elevada resistencia a la oxidación y a la corrosión en caliente. En esta tesis se han desarrollado recubrimientos tipo composite conteniendo cuasicristales como componente antidesgaste, NiCr como componente tenaz, y Ag y la eutéctica de BaF2-CaF2, como lubricantes sólidos. Estos recubrimientos han sido depositados con diferentes composiciones (denominadas TH100, TH103, TH200, TH400, TH600…) mediante distintos procesos de proyección térmica: plasma en aire (PS), plasma en baja presión (LPPS) y combustión a alta velocidad (HVOF). Los recubrimientos se han generado sobre el sustrato X-750, una superaleación base níquel, endurecible por precipitación, con muy buena resistencia mecánica y a la oxidación hasta temperaturas de 870 ºC y, además, es empleada en aplicaciones aeroespaciales e industriales. Los recubrimientos han sido caracterizados microestructuralmente en INTA (Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial), mediante SEM-EDS (Scanning Electronic Microscopy-Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) y XRD (X-Ray Diffraction), y tribológicamente mediante medidas de microdureza y ensayos en tribómetro POD (Pin On Disc) para determinar los coeficientes de fricción y de desgaste. Los recubrimientos han sido ensayados tribológicamente a alta temperatura en INTA y en vacío en AMTTARC (Aerospace and Space Materials Technology Testhouse – Austrian Research Centres), en Seibersdorf (Austria). Se ha estudiado la influencia de la carga normal aplicada, la velocidad lineal y el material del pin. De entre las diferentes series de recubrimientos cuasicristalinos tipo composite desarrolladas, dos de ellas, TH100 y TH103 han presentado una excelente calidad microestructural (baja porosidad, distribución uniforme de fases…) y se han mostrado como excelentes recubrimientos antidesgaste. Sin embargo, estas capas presentan un pobre comportamiento como autolubricantes a temperatura ambiente, aunque mejoran mucho a alta temperatura o en vacío. Los resultados del trabajo presentado en esta tesis han proporcionado nuevo conocimiento respecto al comportamiento tribológico de recubrimientos autolubricantes cuasicristalinos tipo composite depositados por proyección térmica. Sin embargo, dichos resultados, aunque son muy prometedores, no han puesto de manifiesto el adecuado comportamiento autolubricante que se pretendía y, además, como ocurre en cualquier trabajo de investigación, durante el desarrollo del mismo siempre aparecen nuevas dudas por resolver. Se proponen nuevas líneas de trabajo futuro que complementen los resultados obtenidos y que puedan encaminar hacia la obtención de un recubrimiento que mejore su comportamiento autolubricante. ABSTRACT Solid lubricant coatings are required to reduce friction and prevent wear in components that operate at high temperatures or under vacuum (space vehicles, chemical industry, diesel engines, power generation turbines and aeronautical turbines, for instance). In these cases neither greases nor liquid lubricants can be employed and the only practicable approach to lubrication in such conditions is by means of solids. These are increasingly applied in the form of coatings which should exhibit low shear strength, whilst maintaining their chemical stability at extremes temperatures and in the space environment. In the space field, these coatings would be employed in re-usable space plane applications, such as elevon hinges, where temperatures of 700 ºC are reached during re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere. These coatings should also be capable of providing effective lubrication at lower temperatures since “cold start” operation may be necessary, even in the space environment. The diverse and sometimes conflictive requirements in high temperature and space-related tribological coatings make the concept of composite coatings highly suitable for these applications. Thermal-sprayed composites containing solid lubricants in a hard matrix perform well tribologically. NASA‘s Lewis Research Centre had developed self-lubricating composite coatings for terrestrial use, comprising hard materials like chromium carbide as well as solid lubricant additives such as silver and BaF2-CaF2 eutectic on a Ni-Cr matrix. These coatings series, named PS100, PS200, PS300 and PS400, are applied by thermal spray and significantly reduce friction coefficients, improving wear resistance over a wide temperature range. Quasicrystalline alloys (QC) constitute a new family of materials with promising tribological behaviour. Some QC materials exhibit a combination of adequate antifriction properties: low friction coefficient, high hardness and high yield strength under compression, and can be easily produced as coatings on top of metallic and non-metallic materials. Among these QC alloys, AlCoFeCr has high hardness (700 HV0.1), a thermal expansion coefficient close to that of metals, high thermal stability, low thermal conductivity and good oxidation and hot corrosion resistance. However most QC materials have the disadvantage of being very brittle. In order to take advantage of the excellent tribological properties of QCs, thick composite lubricant coatings were prepared containing them as the hard phase for wear resistance, Ag and BaF2-CaF2 eutectic as lubricating materials and NiCr as the tough component. These coatings were deposited in different composition mixtures (named TH100, TH103, TH200, TH400, TH600…) by different thermal spray processes: air plasma spray (PS), low pressure plasma spray (LPPS) and high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF), on X-750 substrates. X-750 is an age-hardenable nickel-base superalloy with very good strength and a good resistance to oxidising combustion gas environments at temperatures up to about 870 ºC and it is widely used in aerospace and industrial applications. Coatings have been characterized microstructurally, at INTA (National Institute for Aerospace Technology), by means of SEM-EDS (Scanning Electronic Microscopy- Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) and XRD (X-Ray Diffraction), and tribologically by microhardness measurements and pin-on-disc testing to determine friction coefficients as well as wear resistance. The coatings were tested tribologically at high temperature at INTA and under vacuum at AMTT-ARC (Aerospace and Space Materials Technology Testhouse – Austrian Research Centres), in Seibersdorf (Austria). Different loads, linear speeds and pin materials were studied. TH100 and TH103 QC alloy matrix composite coatings were deposited by HVOF with excellent microstructural quality (low porosity, uniform phase distribution) and showed to be excellent wear resistant coatings. However these QC alloy matrix composite coatings are poor as a self-lubricant at room temperature but much better at high temperature or in vacuum. The results from the work performed within the scope of this thesis have provided new knowledge concerning the tribological behavior of self-lubricating quasicrystalline composite coatings deposited by thermal spraying. Although these results are very promising, they have not shown an adequate self-lubricating behavior as was intended, and also, as in any research, the results have in addition raised new questions. Future work is suggested to complement the results of this thesis in order to improve the selflubricating behaviour of the coatings.

Deuterium isotope effect on the intramolecular electron transfer in Pseudomonas aeruginosa azurin

Intramolecular electron transfer in azurin in water and deuterium oxide has been studied over a broad temperature range. The kinetic deuterium isotope effect, kH/kD, is smaller than unity (0.7 at 298 K), primarily caused by the different activation entropies in water (−56.5 J K−1 mol−1) and in deuterium oxide (−35.7 J K−1 mol−1). This difference suggests a role for distinct protein solvation in the two media, which is supported by the results of voltammetric measurements: the reduction potential (E0′) of Cu2+/+ at 298 K is 10 mV more positive in D2O than in H2O. The temperature dependence of E0′ is also different, yielding entropy changes of −57 J K−1 mol−1 in water and −84 J K−1 mol−1 in deuterium oxide. The driving force difference of 10 mV is in keeping with the kinetic isotope effect, but the contribution to ΔS‡ from the temperature dependence of E0′ is positive rather than negative. Isotope effects are, however, also inherent in the nuclear reorganization Gibbs free energy and in the tunneling factor for the electron transfer process. A slightly larger thermal protein expansion in H2O than in D2O (0.001 nm K−1) is sufficient both to account for the activation entropy difference and to compensate for the different temperature dependencies of E0′. Thus, differences in driving force and thermal expansion appear as the most straightforward rationale for the observed isotope effect.

Steric sea-level variations inferred from combined Topex/Poseidon altimetry and GRACE gravimetry

In this study, we propose to estimate the steric sea-level variations over a < 2-year period (April 2002 through December 2003) by combining global mean sea level (GMSL) based on Topex/ Poseidon (T/P) altimetry with time-variable geoid averaged over the oceans, as observed by the GRACE (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) satellite. In effect, altimetry-derived GMSL changes results from two contributions: Steric (thermal plus salinity) effects due to sea water density change and ocean mass change due to water exchange with atmosphere and continents. On the other hand, GRACE data over the oceans provide the ocean mass change component only. The paper first discusses the corrections to apply to the GRACE data. Then the steric contribution to the GMSL is estimated using GRACE and T/P data. Comparison with available thermal expansion based on in situ hydrographic data is performed.

CO2 adsorption on crystalline graphitic nanostructures

CO2 adsorption has been measured in different types of graphitic nanostructures (MWCNTs, acid treated MWCNTs, graphene nanoribbons and pure graphene) in order to evaluate the effect of the different defective regions/conformations in the adsorption process, i.e., sp3 hybridized carbon, curved regions, edge defects, etc. This analysis has been performed both in pure carbon and nitrogen-doped nanostructures in order to monitor the effect of surface functional groups on surface created after using different treatments (i.e., acid treatment and thermal expansion of the MWCNTs), and study their adsorption properties. Interestingly, the presence of exposed defective regions in the acid treated nanostructures (e.g., uncapped nanotubes) gives rise to an improvement in the amount of CO2 adsorbed; the adsorption process being completely reversible. For N-doped nanostructures, the adsorption capacity is further enhanced when compared to the pure carbon nanotubes after the tubes were unzipped. The larger proportion of defect sites and curved regions together with the presence of stronger adsorbent–adsorbate interactions, through the nitrogen surface groups, explains their larger adsorption capacity.

Preferred orientation in cross-rolled uranium /

A study is made of the preferred orientation that occurs as a result of cross-rolling uranium sheet. The study is made by the use of inverse-pole figures and calculated thermal expansion coefficients.

The laws of gases : memoirs by Robert Boyle and E. H. Amagat.

Preface.--Boyle, R. A defense of the doctrine touching the spring and weight of the air ... Boyle, Biographical sketch of.--Amagat, E. H. On the compressibility of gases at high pressure.--Amagat, E. H. On the elasticity and the thermal expansion of fluids ... Amagat, Biographical sketch of.--Bibliography.

Developments in the Theory of X-ray Absorption and Compton Scattering.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Modelling of transient heat transfer in annealing furnaces

This is a study of heat transfer in a lift-off furnace which is employed in the batch annealing of a stack of coils of steel strip. The objective of the project is to investigate the various factors which govern the furnace design and the heat transfer resistances, so as to reduce the time of the annealing cycle, and hence minimize the operating costs. The work involved mathematical modelling of patterns of gas flow and modes of heat transfer. These models are: Heat conduction and its conjectures in the steel coils;Convective heat transfer in the plates separating the coils in the stack and in other parts of the furnace; and Radiative and convective heat transfer in the furnace by using the long furnace model. An important part of the project is the development of numerical methods and computations to solve the transient models. A limited number of temperature measurements was available from experiments on a test coil in an industrial furnace. The mathematical model agreed well with these data. The model has been used to show the following characteristics of annealing furnaces, and to suggest further developments which would lead to significant savings: - The location of the limiting temperature in a coil is nearer to the hollow core than to the outer periphery. - Thermal expansion of the steel tends to open the coils, reduces their thermal conductivity in the radial direction, and hence prolongs the annealing cycle. Increasing the tension in the coils and/or heating from the core would overcome this heat transfer resistance. - The shape and dimensions of the convective channels in the plates have significant effect on heat convection in the stack. An optimal design of a channel is shown to be of a width-to-height ratio equal to 9. - Increasing the cooling rate, by using a fluidized bed instead of the normal shell and tube exchanger, would shorten the cooling time by about 15%, but increase the temperature differential in the stack. - For a specific charge weight, a stack of different-sized coils will have a shorter annealing cycle than one of equally-sized coils, provided that production constraints allow the stacking order to be optimal. - Recycle of hot flue gases to the firing zone of the furnace would produce a. decrease in the thermal efficiency up to 30% but decreases the heating time by about 26%.

The structural permeability of concrete at cryogenic temperatures

The thesis describes a programme of research designed to identify concretes for application at cryogenic temperature, in particular for storage of Liquefield Natural Gas which is maintained at a temperature of -165oC. The programme was undertaken in two stages. Stage 1 involved screening tests on seventeen concrete mixes to investigate the effects of strength grade (and water/cement ratio), air entrainment, aggregate type and cement type. Four mixes were selected on the basis of low temperature strength, residual strength after thermal cycling and permeability at ambient temperature. In Stage 2 the selected mixes were subjected to a comprehensive range of tests to measure those properties which determine the leak tightness of a concrete tank at temperatures down to -165oC. These included gas permeability; tensile strength, strain capacity, thermal expansion coefficient and elastic modulus, which in combination provide a measure of resistance to cracking; and bond to reinforcement, which is one of the determining factors regarding crack size and spacing. The results demonstrated that the properties of concrete were generally enhanced at cryogenic temperature, with reduced permeability, reduced crack proneness and, by virtue of increased bond to reinforcement, better control of cracking should it occur. Of the concretes tested, a lightweight mix containing sintered PFA aggregate exhibited the best performance at ambient and cryogenic temperature, having appreciably lower permeability and higher crack resistance than normal weight concretes of the same strength grade. The lightweight mix was most sensitive to thermal cycling, but there was limited evidence that this behaviour would not be significant if the concrete was prestressed. Relationships between various properties have been identified, the most significant being the reduction in gas permeability with increasing strain capacity. The structural implications of the changing properties of the concrete have also been considered.

The spalling of concrete in fires

The occurrence of spalling is a major factor in determining the fire resistance of concrete constructions. The apparently random occurrence of spalling has limited the development and application of fire resistance modelling for concrete structures. This Thesis describes an experimental investigation into the spalling of concrete on exposure to elevated temperatures. It has been shown that spalling may be categorised into four distinct types, aggregate spalling, corner spalling, surface spalling and explosive spalling. Aggregate spalling has been found to be a form of shear failure of aggregates local to the heated surface. The susceptibility of any particular concrete to aggregate spalling can be quantified from parameters which include the coefficients of thermal expansion of both the aggregate and the surrounding mortar, the size and thermal diffusivity of the aggregate and the rate of heating. Corner spalling, which is particularly significant for the fire resistance of concrete columns, is a result of concrete losing its tensile strength at elevated temperatures. Surface spalling is the result of excessive pore pressures within heated concrete. An empirical model has been developed to allow quantification of the pore pressures and a material failure model proposed. The dominant parameters are rate of heating, pore saturation and concrete permeability. Surface spalling may be alleviated by limiting pore pressure development and a number of methods to this end have been evaluated. Explosive spalling involves the catastrophic failure of a concrete element and may be caused by either of two distinct mechanisms. In the first instance, excessive pore pressures can cause explosive spalling, although the effect is limited principally to unloaded or relatively small specimens. A second cause of explosive spalling is where the superimposition of thermally induced stresses on applied load stresses exceed the concrete's strength.

Behaviour of concrete frame structures under localised fire scenarios

This thesis encompasses an investigation of the behaviour of concrete frame structure under localised fire scenarios by implementing a constitutive model using finite-element computer program. The investigation phase included properties of material at elevated temperature, description of computer program, thermal and structural analyses. Transient thermal properties of material have been employed in this study to achieve reasonable results. The finite-element computer package of ANSYS is utilized in the present analyses to examine the effect of fire on the concrete frame under five various fire scenarios. In addition, a report of full-scale BRE Cardington concrete building designed to Eurocode2 and BS8110 subjected to realistic compartment fire is also presented. The transient analyses of present model included additional specific heat to the base value of dry concrete at temperature 100°C and 200°C. The combined convective-radiation heat transfer coefficient and transient thermal expansion have also been considered in the analyses. For the analyses with the transient strains included, the constitutive model based on empirical formula in a full thermal strain-stress model proposed by Li and Purkiss (2005) is employed. Comparisons between the models with and without transient strains included are also discussed. Results of present study indicate that the behaviour of complete structure is significantly different from the behaviour of individual isolated members based on current design methods. Although the current tabulated design procedures are conservative when the entire building performance is considered, it should be noted that the beneficial and detrimental effects of thermal expansion in complete structures should be taken into account. Therefore, developing new fire engineering methods from the study of complete structures rather than from individual isolated member behaviour is essential.

Factors influencing the temperature sensitivity of PMMA based optical fiber Bragg gratings

The Bragg wavelength of a PMMA based fiber grating is determined by the effective core index and the grating pitch, which, in temperature sensing, depend on the thermo-optic and thermal expansion coefficients of PMMA. These two coefficients are a function of surrounding temperature and humidity. Amorphous polymers including PMMA exhibit a certain degree of anisotropic thermal expansion. The anisotropic nature of expansion mainly depends on the polymer processing history. The expansion coefficient is believed to be lower in the direction of the molecular orientation than in the direction perpendicular to the draw direction. Such anisotropic behavior of polymers can be expected in drawn PMMA based optical fiber, and will lead to a reduced thermal expansion coefficient and larger temperature sensitivity than would be the case were the fiber to be isotropic. Extensive work has been carried out to identify these factors. The temperature responses of gratings have been measured at different relative humidity. Gratings fabricated on annealed and non-annealed PMMA optical fibers are used to compare the sensitivity performance as annealing is considered to be able to mitigate the anisotropic effect in PMMA optical fiber. Furthermore an experiment has been designed to eliminate the thermal expansion contribution to the grating wavelength change, leading to increased temperature sensitivity and improved response linearity. © 2014 Copyright SPIE.