Heterogeneity of atmosfpheric ammonia at the landscape scale and consequences for environmental impact assessment.

We examined the consequences of the spatial heterogeneity of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) by measuring and modelling NH3 concentrations and deposition at 25 m grid resolution for a rural landscape containing intensive poultry farming, agricultural grassland, woodland and moorland. The emission pattern gave rise to a high spatial variability of modelled mean annual NH3 concentrations and dry deposition. Largest impacts were predicted for woodland patches located within the agricultural area, while larger moorland areas were at low risk, due to atmospheric dispersion, prevailing wind direction and low NH3 background. These high resolution spatial details are lost in national scale estimates at 1 km resolution due to less detailed emission input maps. The results demonstrate how the spatial arrangement of sources and sinks is critical to defining the NH3 risk to semi-natural ecosystems. These spatial relationships provide the foundation for local spatial planning approaches to reduce environmental impacts of atmospheric NH3.

Hegemonía, gubernamentalidad, territorio. Apuntes metodológicos para una historia social de la planificación

La historia social de la planificación espacial es un elemento clave en el proyecto de replanteamiento crítico de las políticas urbanas y territoriales. Un urbanismo comprometido con la recuperación de lo común bajo coordenadas radicalmente democráticas requiere una lectura del pasado capaz de desvelar cómo llegaron a producirse las estructuras socioespaciales contemporáneas y el papel que la planificación jugó en dicho proceso. La historia social de la planificación permite comprender la génesis sociopolítica de los discursos, técnicas y prácticas urbanísticas que empleamos en la actualidad y cuál ha sido su efecto sobre la vida cotidiana de los planificados. Este artículo analiza varios momentos conceptuales y metodológicos de ese proyecto historiográ!co. Se exploran en primer lugar el concepto gramsciano de «hegemonía» y el foucaultiano de «gubernamentalidad » como herramientas que permiten comprender la articulación entre política y vida cotidiana en el marco de una historia social general. Esta matriz de trabajo se traslada a la dimensión espacial a través de los conceptos de «territorio» y «territorialidad». Por último se estudia el modo en que la planificación ha sido movilizada históricamente como técnica de regulación espacial de los procesos de reproducción social por determinados proyectos hegemónicos/gubernamentales en un contexto de lucha de territorialidades. ........................................... The social history of spatial planning is a key element in the critical reevaluation of urban and territorial policies. In order to engage planning in the recovery of the commons and the formation of more democratic environments we need to understand its role in the historical production of our present sociospatial structures. This historiographical approach provides an alternative account of the sociopolitical genesis of contemporary planning discourses, techniques and practices, describing their effects and impact on the everyday lives of planned populations. This article analyzes several conceptual and methodological moments of this research project. Firstly I suggest that we use Gramsci’s conceptualization of «hegemony» and Foucault’s «governmentality» in order to understand the articulation between politics and everyday life in the context of a general social history. This theoretical framework is then translated into spatial terms through the concepts of «territory» and «territoriality». Finally, I study how planning has been mobilized throughout history by particular hegemonic/governmental projects in order to spatially regulate the processes of social reproduction, in a context shaped by struggles of territoriality.

Energy dependency at the urban scale and its social consequences

Spatial planning & energy. Young planners workshop. Final reports - conclusions

Hacia un análisis cuantitativo de la Ciudad Informal: una aproximación desde la Habitabilidad Básica y la experiencia en Makeni (Sierra Leona)

La importantísima expansión urbana que sufren las principales ciudades de los países en vías de desarrollo, es el mayor reto que afronta la habitabilidad a nivel mundial. Dentro de la teoría general de la Habitabilidad Básica (HaB-ETSAM-UPM, 1995) la ordenación del territorio y el planeamiento urbanístico son las herramientas determinantes para orientar coherentemente los procesos de urbanización, como se reconoce también desde las principales esferas técnicas a nivel internacional. Pero tales herramientas deben enfocarse a una construcción eficiente del territorio, actuando desde una aproximación multidisciplinar, flexible y directa, que incida en las prioridades específicas de cada contexto. Para ello, resulta fundamental comprender a fondo las realidades específicas de estos ámbitos. La ciudad es un fenómeno complejo en esencia. El tejido construido, en constante proceso de cambio, es el caparazón visible que alberga una maravillosa mezcla entrelazada de espacios, funciones, flujos, personas.... Cada ciudad, diferente y única, se integra en su medio, se adapta a geografías, contextos y climas distintos, evoluciona según dinámicas propias, en incomprensibles (o casi) procesos evolutivos. El estudio de la ciudad, supone siempre una simplificación de la misma. La realidad urbana, por detallado que sea nuestro análisis, siempre contendrá indescifrables relaciones que se nos escapan. En cambio, necesitamos de métodos analíticos que nos ayuden a comprender algo esa complejidad. Acercarnos en ese análisis, es un paso previo fundamental para la formulación de respuestas. En este plano, de avance en la comprensión del hecho urbano, se sitúa este trabajo. Se pone el acento en el enfoque cuantitativo, profundizando en datos básicos concretos, siempre aceptando de partida que esta información es una componente mínima, pero esperamos que sustantiva, de un fenómeno inabordable. Y es esta búsqueda de comprensión material y cuantitativa de la ciudad, el objetivo esencial de la investigación. Se pretende proporcionar una base detallada de aquéllos aspectos fundamentales, que pueden ser medidos en los entornos urbanos y que nos proporcionan información útil para el diagnóstico y las propuestas. Para ello, se aportan rangos y referencias deseables, a través de una herramienta para la comprensión y la valoración de cada contexto, la Matriz de Indicadores. Esta herramienta se concibe desde la reflexión a la aplicación práctica, a la utilidad directa, al aporte concreto para quien pueda servir. Ésta es la voluntad decidida con la que se aborda este trabajo, centrado en los entornos urbanos donde el aporte técnico es prioritario: la Ciudad Informal. La Ciudad Informal, entendida aquí como aquélla que se desarrolla sin los medios suficientes (técnicos, económicos e institucionales) que proporciona la planificación, aquélla por donde la habitabilidad precaria se extiende. Es la ciudad que predomina en los países en vías de desarrollo, en los contextos de bajos recursos, allí donde, precisamente, se concentran los principales déficits y necesidades a nivel global. El enfoque nace de la teoría de la Habitabilidad Básica, de la definición de mínimos posibles para, desde allí, construir el espacio necesario para el desarrollo humano. Éste es el ámbito genérico objeto del trabajo que, a su vez, se nutre, de forma muy importante, de la experiencia directa en la ciudad de Makeni, en Sierra Leona. Esta ciudad nos sirve de prototipo experimental en un doble sentido. Por un lado, sirve como espacio empírico en el que chequear la metodología de valoración cuantitativa; y, por otro, el conocimiento de esta ciudad de tamaño medio africana, que se ha ido adquiriendo en los últimos cinco años, es una base directa para el desarrollo teórico de la propia metodología, que ayuda a atisbar lo esencial en contextos similares. El encaje de todo este recorrido se ha articulado desde una experiencia académica que, como docente, he coordinado directa e intensamente. Experiencia muy enriquecedora, que ha sumado muchas manos y mucho aprendizaje en este tiempo. Teoría y práctica en planeamiento urbano se alternan en el trabajo, nutriéndose la una de la otra y a la inversa. Trabajo que nace desde la pasión por la ciudad y el urbanismo. Desde la búsqueda por comprender y desde la vocación de actuar, de intentar mejorar y hacer más habitables los entornos urbanos. Especialmente allí donde las dificultades se agolpan y el camino se alarga, se llena de polvo. Acumular preguntas a cada paso. Cada vez más preguntas. Las respuestas, si existen, aparecen entrelazadas en dinámicas indescifrables de las que queremos formar parte. Fundirnos por momentos en la misma búsqueda, acompañarla. Sentirnos cerca de quiénes comienzan de cero casi cada día. Y otra vez, arrancar. Y compartir, desde el conocimiento, si acaso es que se puede. Y la ciudad. Brutal, imponente, asfixiante, maravillosa, imposible. Creación colectiva insuperable, de energías sumadas que se cosen sin patrón aparente. O sin más razón que la del propio pulso de la vida. Así se siente Makeni. ABSTRACT The important urban growth suffering major cities of developing countries, is the biggest challenge facing the global habitability. Within the general theory of Basic Habitability (HAB-ETSAM-UPM, 1995) spatial planning and urban planning are the crucial tools to consistently guide the urbanization process, as also recognized from the main technical areas worldwide. But such tools should focus on an efficient construction of the territory, working from a multidisciplinary, flexible and direct approach, that affects the specific priorities of each context. To do this, it is essential to thoroughly understand the specific realities of these areas. The city is essentially a complex phenomenon. The urban fabric in constant flux, is the visible shell that houses a wonderful mixture interlocking spaces, functions, flows, people.... Every city, different and unique, is integrated into its environment, adapted to geographies, contexts and climates, it evolves according to its own dynamics, along (almost) incomprehensible evolutionary processes. The study of the city, is always a simplification of it. The urban reality, even studied from a detailed analysis, always contain undecipherable relationships that escape us. Instead, we need analytical methods that help us understand something that complexity. Moving forward in this analysis is an essential first step in formulating responses. At this level, progressing in understand the urban reality, is where this work is located. The emphasis on the quantitative approach is placed, delving into specific basic data, starting always accepting that this information is just a minimal component, but we hope that substantive, of an intractable phenomenon. And it is this search for materials and quantitative understanding of the city, the main objective of the research. It is intended to provide a detailed basis of those fundamental aspects that can be measured in urban environments that provide us useful information for the diagnosis and proposals. To do this, desirable ranges and references are provided, through a tool for understanding and appreciation of each context, the Indicator Matrix. This tool is conceived from reflection to practical application, to a direct utility, concrete contribution to who can serve. This is the firm resolve with which this work is addressed, centered in urban environments where the technical contribution is a priority: the Informal City. The Informal City, understood here as the urban areas developed without the sufficient resources (technical, economic and institutional) which planning provides, where it is extended the precarious habitability. It is the city that prevails in developing countries, in low-resource settings, where, precisely, the main gaps and needs in the global context are concentrated. The approach stems from the theory of Basic Habitability, the definition of possible minimum, to build the necessary space for human development. This is the generic scope of the work object, that is also based in the direct experience in the town of Makeni, Sierra Leone. This city serves as an experimental prototype in two ways. On the one hand, it serves as a space where empirically check the quantitative assessment methodology; and, secondly, the knowledge of this African city of medium size, which has been acquired in the last five years, is a direct basis for the theoretical development of the methodology itself, which helps to glimpse the essence in similar contexts. The engagement of this whole journey has been articulated from an academic experience, directly and intensely coordinated as teacher. Enriching experience that has added many hands and much learning at this time. Theory and practice in urban planning are mixed at work, enriching the one of the other and vice versa. Work is born from the passion for the city and urbanism. From the search for understanding and from the vocation of acting, trying to improve and make more livable urban environments. Especially where the difficulties are crowded and the road is so long, full of dust. To accumulate questions at every turn. More and more questions. The answers, if do exist, appears inside indecipherable dynamics in which we want to be involved. Merge at times in the same search. Feel close to those who start from scratch almost every day. And again, move forward. And share, from knowledge, if possible. And the city. Brutal, impressive, suffocating, wonderful, impossible. Unsurpassed collective creation, combined energy mix that are sewn with no apparent pattern. Or for no reason other than the pulse of life itself. As it feels the city of Makeni.

Elementos peatonales de las ciudades medias españolas : tipos, orígenes, relaciones y articulaciones

A través de esta tesis se busca aportar un análisis de los elementos peatonales que cubren las necesidades y las infraestructuras de apoyo al peatón, siendo un campo poco desarrollado en nuestro país a diferencia de otros como Dinamarca, Reino Unido, Alemania y Holanda, donde las actuaciones peatonales ejecutadas son tradicionales y muy exitosas. Se trata por tanto de un tema poco estudiado pero que adquiere singular importancia en estos años de búsqueda de nuevos modelos urbanos que eviten el derroche de recursos, y avancen hacia formas de movilidad más adecuadas a un mundo limitado y vulnerable. La investigación tiene un carácter eminentemente descriptivo cuyo principal valor es documentar y analizar sistemáticamente una realidad poco conocida, aportándose datos para entender el origen y desarrollo de las actuaciones peatonales. El propósito es ayudar a cimentar este campo en nuestro país, definiendo con precisión el estado de la cuestión geográficamente y dejando para un futuro una cartografía temática completa. El objeto general es estudiar y comprender los elementos peatonales de un número limitado de ciudades medias españolas, marcándose como objetivos específicos los siguientes: - Identificar y describir los principales elementos que conforman la red peatonal de las ciudades. ‐ Estudiar las tipologías espaciales dominantes, sus características y orígenes, pudiendo distinguir de un lado, las desarrolladas en la ciudad consolidada, como las actuaciones en los cascos antiguos; y por otro, las ejecutadas en la ciudad nueva a través de fórmulas arquitectónicas generalmente residenciales con espacios peatonales adjuntos. ‐ Analizar los referidos elementos para comprobar si han conformado redes de uso peatonal, si se han constituido articulando la ciudad como en el caso de los ejes lineales en las ciudades con río o mar, o si han influenciado el carácter del entorno en el que se han realizado, centrando el interés en los cascos históricos peatonalizados. ‐ Comprobar si hay actuaciones complementarias a los procesos de urbanización y mejora urbanística, así como la aprobación de ayudas y subvenciones para afrontar las mismas. ‐ Finalmente, describir y evaluar los procesos y procedimientos mediante los que se produce la peatonalización de determinadas áreas urbanas, los orígenes, los instrumentos y fechas de su puesta en marcha, aportando una cronología peatonal. La metodología comienza con la acotación de 22 ciudades españolas, capitales de provincia con una población entre 100.000 y 500.000 habitantes según los datos del INE del año 2009. La distribución es equilibrada con la selección de ciudades de costa, de interior, con río/ría, con carácter patrimonial, ciudades en islas, etc. El análisis de los elementos peatonales de estas urbes se realiza gracias a la gran resolución de las bases cartográficas públicas y privadas que hay en la actualidad en internet, especialmente con el uso de las herramientas de Google Earth y Google Maps en su versión “street view”, softwares que permiten un paseo virtual de cada ciudad detallándose con gran precisión las actuaciones peatonales. Las ciudades elegidas son: ‐ 11 ciudades costeras: Alicante, Almería, Bilbao, Cádiz, Castellón de la Plana, Huelva, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Palma de Mallorca, Santander, San Sebastián y Tarragona. ‐ 11 ciudades de interior: Albacete, Burgos, Córdoba, León, Lérida, Logroño, Oviedo, Murcia, Pamplona, Valladolid y Vitoria. Finalmente, por tener los porcentajes mas elevados de las áreas peatonales de sus casco histórico, se eligen 3 casos de ciudades representativas para un desarrollo peatonal en profundidad, seleccionándose Burgos, San Sebastián y Pamplona. Otros aspectos metodológicos interesantes a destacar, es la extensa documentación adquirida a través de las fuentes de Internet, sobre todo a la hora de desarrollar el último capítulo “Procesos de peatonalización de las ciudades españolas” centrado en las 3 ciudades elegidas. Se consulta las hemerotecas de periódicos locales, los boletines oficiales, las actas de los plenos de los Ayuntamientos y los documentos de planificación (Planes Generales, Planes Especiales, Planes y Proyectos Municipales, Planes de Movilidad), adquiriéndose una precisa información en cuanto a la cronología de las fechas y extensión del trabajo. Se complementa la metodología con las entrevistas a actores claves en el proceso peatonal, como el personal técnico de los Ayuntamiento y los técnicos redactores de los proyectos; y con la colaboración directa de los técnicos de los consistorios de las 3 ciudades seleccionadas, aportando todo tipo de información demandada. En la tesis, se introduce los elementos peatonales mediante el estudio de los espacios peatonales y los procesos de peatonalización existentes, a través del análisis de la literatura consultada aportándose información valiosa en cuanto a la definición de los modelos peatonales, exponiéndose una breve historia de las peatonalizaciones. Destacan las publicaciones de los expertos europeos en la materia como los autores Carmen Hass-Klau, Rolf Monheim, Rob Krier y Collin Buchanan. En España, las actuaciones peatonales fueron tardías en el tiempo en comparación con el resto de Europa, con casi 40 años de retraso. Las referencias bibliográficas españolas en esta materia son escasas siendo las mas significativas las realizadas por Alfonso Sanz y por el profesor Julio Pozueta destacando una de sus últimas publicaciones “La ciudad paseable” describiéndose los elementos peatonales existentes en las ciudades, sirviendo como modelo y ejemplo para esta investigación. En base a lo anterior, se definen los elementos peatonales como aquellos espacios públicos libres de edificación que, por sus características y diseño, garantizan un confortable uso estancial, de tránsito peatonal y están expresamente reservados para ello. En la tesis se detectan y se especifican los siguientes elementos peatonales: las calles y plazas peatonales, las aceras y bulevares de una anchura superior a 8 metros, los paseos peatonales, los elementos de paso (tradicionales y mecánicos), espacios peatonales ligados a nuevas áreas residenciales, los soportales y pasajes peatonales con una anchura mínima de 4 metros, recintos feriales, espacios libres y zonas verdes y parques. Para cada una de las 22 ciudades seleccionadas se realiza un exhaustivo inventario de los anteriores elementos a través de fichas, aportando un gran número de proyectos individuales ejecutados en cada urbe. Esta información se recoge gráficamente en 2 fotoplanos, conformándose como herramientas fundamentales para esta investigación. El Fotoplano 1 se hace sobre la base de la ciudad del Google Earth diferenciándose las áreas peatonales y las zonas verdes. En el Fotoplano 2, y con el soporte anterior, se distinguen las tipologías persistentes y dominantes como son los grandes ejes peatonales, las redes peatonales locales y los elementos peatonales singulares. Finalmente, a partir de los 2 fotoplanos, se realiza la denominada “Huella peatonal” que destaca por su atractivo y pregnancia, algo de lo que el campo de lo peatonal es muy útil. A través de la huella se obtiene una rápida información al tener el plano dos colores, color naranja para lo peatonal (formado por las áreas peatonales y zonas verdes) y color negro para el resto el resto no peatonal. Toda esta documentación gráfica y descriptiva de los elementos peatonales de cada ciudad, queda ampliamente recogida en el Anexo de la tesis. La “Huella peatonal” se considera como el plano básico en la investigación obteniendo una percepción rápida, clara y visual del espacio peatonal de cada ciudad. Se arroja información morfológica con respecto a la distribución espacial, articulación, equilibrio, modulación, cohesión, concentración peatonal, etc. de cada una de las ciudades seleccionadas. A través de la huella se resuelve muchos de las cuestiones enmarcadas como objetivos de la tesis, comprobándose de forma general, que los elementos peatonales dentro de la trama urbana están desarticulados ya que no hay una estructura que module la ciudad como un conjunto cohesionado. Se localizan pequeñas redes conectadas entre sí, que de forma heterogénea, están dispersas por la ciudad. Se verifica que los elementos peatonales con mayor concentración y presencia en las ciudades analizadas son los ejes peatonales, los cascos históricos y los elementos peatonales en las nuevas áreas residenciales. En la investigación, además de estos 3 elementos mencionados, se analiza con mayor profundidad otros tipos que destacan por su persistencia y repetición en la “Huella peatonal” de cada una de las 22 ciudades, como son las plazas peatonales, los soportales y los elementos singulares peatonales: espacios tradicionales (recintos feriales, pasajes, puentes históricos), nuevos elementos peatonales (pasarelas peatonales, elementos mecánicos de paso), áreas peatonales entorno a edificios culturales y otros casos como los consistentes en la recuperación y transformación de edificaciones y construcciones urbanas de diferente uso y tipología, en nuevas áreas peatonales. Se aporta luz sobre su definición, localización, cronología, proporción, presencia y génesis, facilitando resultados de cada uno de ellos. De forma paralela, se obtiene información de índole cuantitativa a través de las mediciones de la huella, obteniéndose datos y porcentajes de extensión de la ciudad, de las zonas peatonales y de las zonas verdes, de los cascos históricos y de sus superficies peatonales, de los metros lineales de dichos cascos históricos y de sus calles peatonales. Se proporcionan ratios e índices que se consideran fundamentales para una mejor comprensión peatonal de cada urbe. Se establece una clasificación de las ciudades en cada uno de los ámbitos descritos, destacando las ciudades de Pamplona, San Sebastián y Burgos por arrojar las cifras peatonales más positivas encabezando la mayoría de las tablas clasificatorias. La peor ciudad valorada es Alicante, seguida según criterio, de Almería, Palma de Mallorca y Las Palmas de GC. En el capítulo final de la investigación, se eligen las ciudades de Burgos, San Sebastián y Pamplona como casos de estudio representativos. El objetivo es obtener un conocimiento más preciso en cuanto a su origen, cronología y procesos de las peatonalizaciones. Cada ciudad se compone de un cuadro cronológicos por etapas, desarrollándose de forma exhaustiva cada una de ellas, enunciadas normalmente, como instrumentos de planeamiento o proyectos de urbanización, acompañadas de los planos de las actuaciones peatonales. Al final de cada etapa se aportan datos de las cifras de las peatonalizaciones que se van realizando, con un cuadro numérico de localizaciones, superficie peatonal, superficie reurbanizada, longitud peatonal y el grado de peatonalización del casco histórico, además de los datos acumulados por etapa. De las conclusiones cruzadas de estas 3 ciudades, destaca la comprobación de la tendencia de ir peatonalizando los centros antiguos llegando incluso al 100% de calles peatonales en el caso de San Sebastián. No obstante, es difícil confirmar si el objetivo es una peatonalización global de los cascos, ya que son muchas las variables que afectan e influyen en el proceso peatonal de cada ciudad. Se coteja adicionalmente cómo se extiende la cultura peatonal desde el interior al exterior, mas allá de los cascos históricos hacia los ensanches próximos. En cuanto al origen de las peatonalizaciones, se concluye que no hay una concepción inicial y teórica marcada, a partir de la cual se va desarrollando la trama peatonal de cada ciudad. Se puede afirmar que los procesos peatonales ejecutados son variados y de diversa índole, sin poder precisar un hecho como causa principal. Según el momento y las circunstancias, las peatonalizaciones responden a distintas iniciativas promovidas por los comerciantes, por las administraciones locales o por los técnicos de planeamiento, con sus expertas aportaciones en los planes. Estos tres agentes actúan como impulsores de proyectos individuales peatonales que se van solapando en el tiempo. Como punto final de la tesis, se propone una serie de nuevas líneas de investigación que pueden servir como estudio adicional y complementario, respondiendo a aspectos tan relevantes como cuestiones de índole económica, social y de movilidad, fuertemente ligadas a las peatonalizaciones, tal y como se demuestra en la literatura consultada. ABSTRACT This thesis aims to analyse the pedestrian elements dealing with the needs and infrastructures that support pedestrians, as this is a field that is little developed in our country, in comparison to other regions such as Denmark, the United Kingdom, Germany and the Netherlands, where the pedestrian actions implemented are traditional and highly successful. Therefore, even though little research has been done about this topic, this field is increasingly important throughout these years of search for urban models intended to prevent the waste of resources and to develop new mobility ways, more adapted to a limited, vulnerable world. This research is essentially descriptive and it mainly aims to document and systematically analysed a scarcely known reality by providing data in order to understand the origin and development of pedestrian actions. This thesis intends to lay the foundations of this field in Spain, accurately defining the state of the art from a geographical point of view and preparing a full thematic map that may be used in the future. The overall aim is to study and understand the pedestrian elements of a limited number of Spanish medium-size cities, establishing the following specific goals: - To identify and describe the main elements comprising cities' pedestrian networks. - To study of special predominant typologies, their features and origins, with the possibility to, on the one hand, make a difference between the typologies developed in well-established cities, such as the actions in historic quarters, and, on the other hand, those implemented in new cities through generally residential architectural formulae with adjoining pedestrian areas. - To analyse the said elements in order to check whether they have resulted in pedestrian-use networks, whether they have been established by organising the city, such as the linear axes in coastal and riverside cities, or whether they have had an impact on the character of the areas where these elements have been implemented, focusing on pedestrian historic quarters. - Check whether there are actions supplementary to the urban development and urban improvement processes, as well as the approval of financial support and subventions to deal with these actions. - Finally, to describe and assess the processes and procedures by which the pedestrianisation of certain urban areas is carried out, the origins, the instruments and the date of their implementation, providing a pedestrian timeline. The methodology starts by defining 22 Spanish cities, province capitals with a population ranging from 100,000 to 500,000 inhabitants, according to the data recorded by the Spanish Statistics Institute (INE) in 2009. The distribution of coastal, riverside and interior cities, as well as of patrimonial cities and cities in islands, etc. is well balanced. The analysis of the pedestrian elements of these cities is made with the great resolution of the public and private map databases that can be accessed on the Internet, especially using the "street-view" version of tools such as Google Earth and Google Maps, software applications that allow to go for a virtual walk in each city, providing highly precise details about the pedestrian actions. The following cities have been chosen: ‐ 11 coastal cities: Alicante, Almería, Bilbao, Cádiz, Castellón de la Plana, Huelva, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Palma de Mallorca, Santander, San Sebastián and Tarragona. ‐ 11 interior cities: Albacete, Burgos, Córdoba, León, Lérida, Logroño, Oviedo, Murcia, Pamplona, Valladolid and Vitoria. Finally, as they have the highest percentages regarding the pedestrian areas found in the historic quarters, 3 cities representing a deep pedestrian development have been chosen: Burgos, San Sebastián and Pamplona. Other significant methodological aspects are the many documents found from online sources, especially when preparing the last chapter: “Processes for the pedestrianisation of Spanish cities”, which focuses on the 3 cities chosen. Local newspaper and periodical libraries, official gazettes, the minutes of plenary sessions of councils and the zoning regulation documents (General Zoning Plans, Special Zoning Plans, Municipal Plans and Projects, Mobility Plans, etc.) have been consulted, obtaining accurate information regarding the timeline and the extension of the works carried out. The methodology is supplemented by interviews with key players in the pedestrianisation process, such as the technical staff in councils and the officers drafting and designing the projects, as well as with the direct collaboration by the officers of the councils of the 3 cities chosen, who provided all the information requested. The thesis introduces the pedestrian elements by studying pedestrian areas and existing pedestrianisation processes through the analysis of the literature consulted, providing valuable information for the definition of pedestrian models and showing a brief history and background of the pedestrianisation process. Remarkable papers published by some European experts in the field, such as Carmen Hass-Klau, Rolf Monheim and Collin Buchanan, are covered in the thesis. In Spain, the pedestrianisation actions were late in time in comparison to the rest of Europe, with at least 40 years of delay. The Spanish literature references in this field are limited. The most significant papers are those published by Alfonso Sanz and by Professor Julio Pozueta, with a special mention of one of his last works "La ciudad paseable" (The Walkable City), which describes the pedestrian elements found in the cities and is used a model and an example for this research. Based on the elements above, pedestrian elements are defined as those construction-free public areas that, due to their features and design, ensure the comfortable, convenient use of the spaces, characterised by pedestrian traffic and specifically reserved for this purpose. The thesis detects and specifies the following pedestrian elements: pedestrian streets and squares, pavements (sidewalks) and boulevards with a width exceeding 8 metres, pedestrian promenades, crossing elements (traditional and mechanical), pedestrian spaces linked to new residential areas, colonnades and pedestrian passages or narrow streets with a minimum width of 4 metres, exhibition sites, free spaces and green areas and parks. For each of the 22 cities chosen, a thorough inventory of the elements mentioned above has been made by using worksheets, providing a significant number of individual projects developed in each city. This information is graphically collected and displayed on 2 photomaps, resulting in tools essential for this research. Photomap 1 is made based on the city displayed by Google Earth, making a difference between pedestrian areas and green areas. On Photomap 2, using the tool mentioned above, a difference can be made between persistent and predominant typologies, such as the big pedestrian axes, the local pedestrian networks and singular pedestrian elements. Finally, the 2 photomaps are used in order to establish the so-called "pedestrian footprint", which is highlighted by its attractiveness and appeal, concepts for which the pedestrian field is very useful. With the pedestrian footprint, quick information can be obtained, since the map shows two colours: orange for pedestrian elements (made up of pedestrian areas and green areas) and black for the other non-pedestrian elements. A significant part of these graphic, descriptive documents about each city's pedestrian elements can be found in the thesis appendix. The "Pedestrian Footprint" is regarded in the research as the basic map, obtaining a quick, clear and visual perception of each city's pedestrian space. This footprint provides morphological information regarding the space distribution, the organisation, the balance, the modulation, the cohesion, the pedestrian concentration, etc. in each of the cities chosen. The pedestrian footprint helps solve many of the questions established as the thesis goals, proving that, in general, the pedestrian elements are not organised in the urban plot, as there is no structure modulating the city as a properly linked set of elements. Small networks linked to each other and heterogeneously scattered all over the city are found. It has been verified that the pedestrian elements with the highest concentration and presence in the cities analysed are the pedestrian axes, the historic quarters and the pedestrian elements found in the new residential areas. Besides these 3 elements mentioned, the research analyses in depth other types that are remarkable due to their persistence and repetition in the "Pedestrian Footprint" of each of the 22 cities, such as the pedestrian squares, the colonnades and the singular pedestrian elements: traditional spaces (exhibition sites, passages, historic bridges), new pedestrian elements (pedestrian footbridges, mechanical crossing elements), pedestrian areas around cultural buildings and other cases such as those consisting of recovering and transforming building and urban constructions, intended for a wide range of purposes and of different types, into new pedestrian areas. This work puts light on the definition, location, timeline, proportion, presence and origin, providing results for each of these concepts. At the same time, quantitative information is obtained by measuring the footprint, getting data and percentages on the size of the city, the pedestrian areas and the green areas, the historic quarters and the pedestrian zones, the linear metres of such historic quarters and pedestrian streets. The footprint also provides ratios and rates that are considered as essential in order to better understand the pedestrian elements of each city. A classification of cities is established for each of the areas described, highlighting the cities of Pamplona, San Sebastián and Burgos, as they provide the most positive pedestrian figures and lead most of the classification tables or rankings. According to the criteria considered, the city with the worst values is Alicante, followed by Almería, Palma de Mallorca and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. In the final chapter in the thesis, the cities of Burgos, San Sebastián and Pamplona are chosen as representative study cases. The aim is to gain more accurate knowledge regarding the pedestrianisation origin, timeline and processes. Each city comprises a chronological sequence made of stages, each of which is thoroughly developed and usually announced as zoning plans or urban development projects, accompanied by the plans of the pedestrian actions. At the end of each stage, data with the figures of the pedestrianisation projects are provided, including a numerical chart with locations, pedestrian area, redeveloped urban areas, pedestrian length and pedestrianisation degree in the historic quarter, as well as the data cumulated throughout each stage. In the crossed conclusions on the three cities, the trend of gradually pedestrianising the historic quarters (even reaching the 100% of the pedestrian streets as in San Sebastián) is verified. However, it is difficult to confirm whether the purpose is to reach an overall pedestrianisation of the historic quarters, since there are many variables that affect and influence each city's pedestrianisation process. In addition, the spread of the pedestrian culture from the internal areas to the external areas, beyond the historic quarters to the nearby expansion areas, is compared. Regarding the origin of pedestrianisations, the thesis comes to the conclusion that there is no initial or theoretical conception from which each city's pedestrian plot is developed. The pedestrian processes implemented are varied and diverse but no fact can be specified as the main cause. Based on the moment and circumstances, the pedestrianisation processes are due to different initiatives promoted by shopkeepers, by the local administrations or by the zoning officers, with their expert contributions to the plans. These three players promote and drive individual pedestrianisation projects that overlap in the course of time. Finally, new lines of research are put forwards, as they can be taken as an additional study and as a supplement to this research, dealing with aspects as significant as the economic, social and mobility factors, closely linked to the pedestrianisation processes, as proven in the literature consulted.

EIA-RIMA insuficiente como avaliação de impactos ambientais enquanto busca de sustentabilidade urbana: o caso de São Sebastião

O presente trabalho comprova que o atual instrumento EIA-RIMA - Estudo de Impacto Ambiental e seu respectivo Relatório de Impacto Ambiental, é insuficiente enquanto busca de sustentabilidade urbana no Litoral Norte do Estado de São Paulo, especificamente no município de São Sebastião. O método de analise dos EIA-RIMA sempre enfatizam os ganhos econômicos e atenuam os impactos negativos, apesar das fragilidades naturais, estruturais e restrições legais incidentes. A tese comprova que os instrumentos utilizados no âmbito do processo de licenciamento ambiental dos empreendimentos, como a ampliação do porto comercial de São Sebastião, estão pouco comprometidos com o real desenvolvimento sustentável da cidade e região. As especificidades geográficas, sobretudo as facilidades de interface do território terrestre com o marítimo, proporcionadas pelas características naturais do Canal de São Sebastião, sempre ofereceram condições privilegiadas para o abrigo de embarcações, característica decisiva na escolha do lugar como cidade portuária, vinculada aos mais importantes ciclos econômicos do país. Agora, em 2015, está prestes a entrar em um novo ciclo, principalmente com a ampliação do porto comercial, duplicação da rodovia dos Tamoios e da SP-055 e a exploração da camada pré-sal na Bacia de Santos. A região já apresenta todos os problemas de uma ocupação acelerada em um território ambientalmente frágil, localizado em estreita faixa litorânea, composta de um lado pela Serra do Mar e do outro pelo Oceano Atlântico. Se não houver um planejamento urbano e regional que considere as características e capacidade de suporte deste território, a zona costeira entrará em colapso. Saber dosar o uso de suas potencialidades sem esgotá-las será o desafio de nossa geração. Os Estudos de Impactos Ambientais precisam ser aperfeiçoados para que ações mitigadoras alcancem muito mais do que o mínimo, alinhadas a investimentos, tecnologias inovadoras, infraestruturas necessárias e obrigatórias que sejam pensadas de maneira conjunta e cumulativa nas diversas esferas do poder, com efetiva participação pública, caso contrário, o crescente interesse econômico e político tenderá à destruição irreversível do patrimônio histórico e natural deste território. O EIA está se transformando em um poderoso instrumento político de ordenamento territorial que acaba por definir critérios e parâmetros de uso e ocupação, desempenhando uma função que não lhe compete, além de aprofundar o desencontro entre uma vida urbana de qualidade e um ambiente equilibrado em nome do desenvolvimento econômico e a serviço dos interesses privados.

El paisaje, su patrimonialización y el beneficio económico

Desde hace dos décadas se viene asistiendo a un renovado interés por el paisaje en distintas disciplinas e instituciones políticas y administrativas. Algunos autores lo interpretan desde una perspectiva neorromántica, como reacción a los efectos destructores de la modernidad. El Convenio Europeo del Paisaje (CEP) estableció en Florencia en el año 2000 una definición de paisaje ampliamente aceptada y unas pautas de intervención sobre el mismo que pretenden ser el marco para las leyes nacionales y regionales de los países firmantes. El presente trabajo se propone explicar la recuperación del interés por el paisaje desde la perspectiva de la valorización económica del territorio, como externalidad que permite generar rentas. En mi opinión esa es la verdadera orientación de la CEP.

Technology policy and technological innovation in the People's Republic of China

The objective of this research is to unveil the dynamics of technological innovation in planned economies in transition. It is proposed in the thesis that all innovation systems in the world, in fact, consist of certain configurations of market and hierarchy. These systems have always been shifting from one existing market-hierarchy mix to a new one, which is expected to be more conducive to technological innovation and economic development. Current reforms in many planned economies in transition reflect this theoretical proposition. A research framework is constructed to include three main dimensions for the study of a specific innovation system, i.e. Arrangements, Achievements and Actors. China, which has undergone reforms since 1978, is chosen as the empirical basis of the research. The research examined technology policy and technological innovation in China between 1978 to 1988. The thesis starts from Arrangements - R&D System in China and Its Reform. The thesis illustrates reforms in the R&D system in relation to government technology policy. There exist coherent government efforts to promote innovations through various plans, and the planning process incorporates both market and command elements. The institutional structure of Chinese R&D system remains still vertically departmentalised, but horizontal links are created through the market. Secondly, Achievements - Performance of Chinese R&D System is assessed through patterns of technological innovation. Data from National Awards for S&T Progress (1978-1988) are included in a substantial database, which is used to generate patterns of technological innovation and patterns of innovating organisations. These patterns were presented and interpreted in relation to geographical differences, sectoral differences, typological differences, forms of co-operation and the impacts of S&T policy and reform. The third dimension is study on Actors - Innovation in Applied R&D institutes. Through semi-structured interviews and questionnaire survey, internal structure and research management are analysed in the light of ongoing reforms. The reform of R&D funding system greatly affected the way applied R&D institutes operate. Both organisational and individual incentives for innovating are increasingly associated with economic or material benefits. The research suggests there is a need to put reforms in the R&D system into a wider societal and political context. Some general attributes of applied R&D institutes are also discussed in the thesis.

Examining links between cognitive markers, movement initiation and change, and pedestrian safety in older adults

Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which mobility indices (such as walking speed and postural sway), motor initiation, and cognitive function, specifically executive functions, including spatial planning, visual attention, and within participant variability, differentially predicted collisions in the near and far sides of the road with increasing age. Methods: Adults aged over 45 years participated in cognitive tests measuring executive function and visual attention (using Useful Field of View; UFoV®), mobility assessments (walking speed, sit-to-stand, self-reported mobility, and postural sway assessed using motion capture cameras), and gave road crossing choices in a two-way filmed real traffic pedestrian simulation. Results: A stepwise regression model of walking speed, start-up delay variability, and processing speed) explained 49.4% of the variance in near-side crossing errors. Walking speed, start-up delay measures (average & variability), and spatial planning explained 54.8% of the variance in far-side unsafe crossing errors. Start-up delay was predicted by walking speed only (explained 30.5%). Conclusion: Walking speed and start-up delay measures were consistent predictors of unsafe crossing behaviours. Cognitive measures, however, differentially predicted near-side errors (processing speed), and far-side errors (spatial planning). These findings offer potential contributions for identifying and rehabilitating at-risk older pedestrians.

Mobility changes in older age: neuropsychological, neurophysiological and cognitive predictors of successful adaptation in a real world scenario

The aims of this thesis were to investigate the neuropsychological, neurophysiological, and cognitive contributors to mobility changes with increasing age. In a series of studies with adults aged 45-88 years, unsafe pedestrian behaviour and falls were investigated in relation to i) cognitive functions (including response time variability, executive function, and visual attention tests), ii) mobility assessments (including gait and balance and using motion capture cameras), iii) motor initiation and pedestrian road crossing behavior (using a simulated pedestrian road scene), iv) neuronal and functional brain changes (using a computer based crossing task with magnetoencephalography), and v) quality of life questionnaires (including fear of falling and restricted range of travel). Older adults are more likely to be fatally injured at the far-side of the road compared to the near-side of the road, however, the underlying mobility and cognitive processes related to lane-specific (i.e. near-side or far-side) pedestrian crossing errors in older adults is currently unknown. The first study explored cognitive, motor initiation, and mobility predictors of unsafe pedestrian crossing behaviours. The purpose of the first study (Chapter 2) was to determine whether collisions at the near-side and far-side would be differentially predicted by mobility indices (such as walking speed and postural sway), motor initiation, and cognitive function (including spatial planning, visual attention, and within participant variability) with increasing age. The results suggest that near-side unsafe pedestrian crossing errors are related to processing speed, whereas far-side errors are related to spatial planning difficulties. Both near-side and far-side crossing errors were related to walking speed and motor initiation measures (specifically motor initiation variability). The salient mobility predictors of unsafe pedestrian crossings determined in the above study were examined in Chapter 3 in conjunction with the presence of a history of falls. The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which walking speed (indicated as a salient predictor of unsafe crossings and start-up delay in Chapter 2), and previous falls can be predicted and explained by age-related changes in mobility and cognitive function changes (specifically within participant variability and spatial ability). 53.2% of walking speed variance was found to be predicted by self-rated mobility score, sit-to-stand time, motor initiation, and within participant variability. Although a significant model was not found to predict fall history variance, postural sway and attentional set shifting ability was found to be strongly related to the occurrence of falls within the last year. Next in Chapter 4, unsafe pedestrian crossing behaviour and pedestrian predictors (both mobility and cognitive measures) from Chapter 2 were explored in terms of increasing hemispheric laterality of attentional functions and inter-hemispheric oscillatory beta power changes associated with increasing age. Elevated beta (15-35 Hz) power in the motor cortex prior to movement, and reduced beta power post-movement has been linked to age-related changes in mobility. In addition, increasing recruitment of both hemispheres has been shown to occur and be beneficial to perform similarly to younger adults in cognitive tasks (Cabeza, Anderson, Locantore, & McIntosh, 2002). It has been hypothesised that changes in hemispheric neural beta power may explain the presence of more pedestrian errors at the farside of the road in older adults. The purpose of the study was to determine whether changes in age-related cortical oscillatory beta power and hemispheric laterality are linked to unsafe pedestrian behaviour in older adults. Results indicated that pedestrian errors at the near-side are linked to hemispheric bilateralisation, and neural overcompensation post-movement, 4 whereas far-side unsafe errors are linked to not employing neural compensation methods (hemispheric bilateralisation). Finally, in Chapter 5, fear of falling, life space mobility, and quality of life in old age were examined to determine their relationships with cognition, mobility (including fall history and pedestrian behaviour), and motor initiation. In addition to death and injury, mobility decline (such as pedestrian errors in Chapter 2, and falls in Chapter 3) and cognition can negatively affect quality of life and result in activity avoidance. Further, number of falls in Chapter 3 was not significantly linked to mobility and cognition alone, and may be further explained by a fear of falling. The objective of the above study (Study 2, Chapter 3) was to determine the role of mobility and cognition on fear of falling and life space mobility, and the impact on quality of life measures. Results indicated that missing safe pedestrian crossing gaps (potentially indicating crossing anxiety) and mobility decline were consistent predictors of fear of falling, reduced life space mobility, and quality of life variance. Social community (total number of close family and friends) was also linked to life space mobility and quality of life. Lower cognitive functions (particularly processing speed and reaction time) were found to predict variance in fear of falling and quality of life in old age. Overall, the findings indicated that mobility decline (particularly walking speed or walking difficulty), processing speed, and intra-individual variability in attention (including motor initiation variability) are salient predictors of participant safety (mainly pedestrian crossing errors) and wellbeing with increasing age. More research is required to produce a significant model to explain the number of falls.

Mapped cetacean habitat suitability and richness in the Azores, links to ArcGIS files

Marine spatial planning and ecological research call for high-resolution species distribution data. However, those data are still not available for most marine large vertebrates. The dynamic nature of oceanographic processes and the wide-ranging behavior of many marine vertebrates create further difficulties, as distribution data must incorporate both the spatial and temporal dimensions. Cetaceans play an essential role in structuring and maintaining marine ecosystems and face increasing threats from human activities. The Azores holds a high diversity of cetaceans but the information about spatial and temporal patterns of distribution for this marine megafauna group in the region is still very limited. To tackle this issue, we created monthly predictive cetacean distribution maps for spring and summer months, using data collected by the Azores Fisheries Observer Programme between 2004 and 2009. We then combined the individual predictive maps to obtain species richness maps for the same period. Our results reflect a great heterogeneity in distribution among species and within species among different months. This heterogeneity reflects a contrasting influence of oceanographic processes on the distribution of cetacean species. However, some persistent areas of increased species richness could also be identified from our results. We argue that policies aimed at effectively protecting cetaceans and their habitats must include the principle of dynamic ocean management coupled with other area-based management such as marine spatial planning.

Environmental Impacts of the Deep-Water Oil and Gas Industry : A Review to Guide Management Strategies

The authors would like to thank the leadership of the Deep Ocean Stewardship Initiative (DOSI), including Lisa Levin, Maria Baker, and Kristina Gjerde, for their support in developing this review. This work evolved from a meeting of the DOSI Oil and Gas working group supported by the J.M. Kaplan Fund, and associated with the Deep-Sea Biology Symposium in Aveiro, Portugal in September 2015. The members of the Oil and Gas working group that contributed to our discussions at that meeting or through the listserve are acknowledged for their contributions to this work. We would also like to thank the three reviewers and the editor who provided valuable comments and insight into the work presented here. DJ and AD were supported by funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the MERCES (Marine Ecosystem Restoration in Changing European Seas) project, grant agreement No 689518. AB was supported by CNPq grants 301412/2013-8 and 200504/2015-0. LH acknowledges funding provided by a Natural Environment Research Council grant (NE/L008181/1). This output reflects only the authors' views and the funders cannot be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.

Place-Based Evaluation for Integrated Land-Use Management

This book brings together experts in the fields of spatial planning, landuse and infrastructure management to explore the emerging agenda of spatially-oriented integrated evaluation. It weaves together the latest theories, case studies, methods, policy and practice to examine and assess the values, impacts, benefits and the overall success in integrated land-use management. In doing so, the book clarifies the nature and roles of evaluation and puts forward guidance for future policy and practice.

Review of the flood risk management system in Germany after the major flood in 2013

Widespread flooding in June 2013 caused damage costs of €6 to 8 billion in Germany, and awoke many memories of the floods in August 2002, which resulted in total damage of €11.6 billion and hence was the most expensive natural hazard event in Germany up to now. The event of 2002 does, however, also mark a reorientation toward an integrated flood risk management system in Germany. Therefore, the flood of 2013 offered the opportunity to review how the measures that politics, administration, and civil society have implemented since 2002 helped to cope with the flood and what still needs to be done to achieve effective and more integrated flood risk management. The review highlights considerable improvements on many levels, in particular (1) an increased consideration of flood hazards in spatial planning and urban development, (2) comprehensive property-level mitigation and preparedness measures, (3) more effective flood warnings and improved coordination of disaster response, and (4) a more targeted maintenance of flood defense systems. In 2013, this led to more effective flood management and to a reduction of damage. Nevertheless, important aspects remain unclear and need to be clarified. This particularly holds for balanced and coordinated strategies for reducing and overcoming the impacts of flooding in large catchments, cross-border and interdisciplinary cooperation, the role of the general public in the different phases of flood risk management, as well as a transparent risk transfer system. Recurring flood events reveal that flood risk management is a continuous task. Hence, risk drivers, such as climate change, land-use changes, economic developments, or demographic change and the resultant risks must be investigated at regular intervals, and risk reduction strategies and processes must be reassessed as well as adapted and implemented in a dialogue with all stakeholders.

The evolution and performance of river basin management in the Murray-Darling Basin

We explore bioregional management in the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) in Australia through the institutional design characteristics of the MDB River Basin Organization (RBO), the actors and organizations who supported and resisted the establishment of the RBO, and the effectiveness of the RBO. During the last 25 years, there has been a major structural reform in the MDB RBO, which has changed from an interstate coordinating body to an Australian government agency. Responsibility for basin management has been centralized under the leadership of the Australian government, and a comprehensive integrated Basin plan has been adopted. The driving forces for this centralization include national policy to restore river basins to sustainable levels of extraction, state government difficulties in reversing overallocation of water entitlements, the millennium drought and its effects, political expediency on the part of the Australian government and state governments, and a major injection of Australian government funding. The increasing hierarchy and centralization of the MDB RBO does not follow a general trend toward multilevel participative governance of RBOs, but decentralization should not be overstated because of the special circumstances at the time of the centralization and the continuing existence of some decentralized elements, such as catchment water plans, land use planning, and water quality. Further swings in the centralization–decentralization pendulum could occur. The MDB reform has succeeded in rebalancing Basin water allocations, including an allocation for the environment and reduced diversion limits. There are some longer term risks to the implementation of reform, including lack of cooperation by state governments, vertical coordination difficulties, and perceived reductions in the accountability and legitimacy of reform at the local level. If implementation of the Basin plan is diverted or delayed, a new institution, the Commonwealth Environmental Water Holder, can play a major role in securing and coordinating environmental water supplies.