European aspen and hybrid aspen under changing environment : Leaf traits, growth and litter decomposition

Understanding the responses of species and ecosystems to human-induced global environmental change has become a high research priority. The main aim of this thesis was to investigate how certain environmental factors that relate to global change affect European aspen (Populus tremula), a keystone species in boreal forests, and hybrid aspen (P. tremula × P. tremuloides), cultivated in commercial plantations. The main points under consideration were the acclimatization potential of aspen through changes in leaf morphology, as well as effects on growth, leaf litter chemistry and decomposition. The thesis is based on two experiments, in which young aspen (< 1 year) were exposed either to an atmospheric pollutant [elevated ozone (O3)] or variable resource availability [water, nitrogen (N)]; and two field studies, in which mature trees (> 8 years) were growing in environments exposed to multiple environmental stress factors (roadside and urban environments). The field studies included litter decomposition experiments. The results show that young aspen, especially the native European aspen, was sensitive to O3 in terms of visible leaf injuries. Elevated O3 resulted in reduced biomass allocation to roots and accelerated leaf senescence, suggesting negative effects on growth in the long term. Water and N availability modified the frost hardening of young aspen: High N supply, especially when combined with drought, postponed the development of frost hardiness, which in turn may predispose trees to early autumn frosts. This effect was more pronounced in European aspen. The field studies showed that mature aspen acclimatized to roadside and urban environments by producing more xeromorphic leaves. Leaf morphology was also observed to vary in response to interannual climatic variation, which further indicates the ability of aspen for phenotypic plasticity. Intraspecific variation was found in several of the traits measured, although intraspecific differences in response to the abiotic factors examined were generally small throughout the studies. However, some differences between clones were found in sensitivity to O3 and the roadside environment. Aspen leaf litter decomposition was retarded in the roadside environment, but only initially. By contrast, decomposition was found to be faster in the urban than the rural environment throughout the study. The higher quality of urban litter (higher in N, lower in lignin and phenolics), as well as higher temperature, N deposition and humus pH at the urban site were factors likely to promote decay. The phenotypic plasticity combined with intraspecific variation found in the studies imply that aspen has potential for withstanding environmental changes, although some global change factors, such as rising O3 levels, may adversely affect its performance. The results also suggest that the multiple environmental changes taking place in urban areas which correspond closely with the main drivers of global change can modify ecosystem functioning by promoting litter decomposition, mediated partly by alterations in leaf litter quality.

Heating values of mature trees.

The effective heating values of the above and below ground biomass components of mature Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), Norway spruce (Picea abies), downy birch (Betula pubescens), silver birch (Betula pendula), grey alder (Alnus incana), black alder (Alnus glutinosa) and trembling aspen (Populus tremula) were studied. Each sample tree was divided into wood, bark and foliage components. Bomb calorimetry was used to determine the calorimetric heating values. The species is a significant factor in the heating value of individual tree components. The heating value of the wood proper is highest in conifers. Broad-leaved species have a higher heating value of bark than conifers. The species factor diminishes when the weighted heating value of crown, whole stems or stump-root-system are considered. The crown material has a higher heating value per unit weight in comparison with fuelwood from small-sized stems or wholetrees. The additional advantages of coniferous crown material are that it is a non-industrial biomass resource and is readily available. The variability of both the chemical composition and the heating value is small in any given tree component of any species. However, lignin, carbohydrate and extractive content were found to vary from one part of the tree to another and to correlate with the heating value.

Decomposition of Scots pine fine woody debris in boreal conditions

"Litter quality and environmental effects on Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) fine woody debris (FWD) decomposition were examined in three forestry-drained peatlands representing different site types along a climatic gradient from the north boreal (Northern Finland) to south (Southern Finland) and hemiboreal (Central Estonia) conditions. Decomposition (percent mass loss) of FWD with diameter <= 10 mm (twigs) and FWD with diameter > 10 mm (branches) was measured using the litter bag method over 1-4-year periods. Overall, decomposition rates increased from north to south, the rate constants (k values) varying from 0.128 to 0.188 year(-1) and from 0.066 to 0.127 year(-1) for twigs and branches, respectively. On average, twigs had lost 34%, 19% and 19%, and branches 25%, 17% and 11% of their initial mass after 2 years of decomposition at the hemiboreal, south boreal and north boreal sites, respectively. After 4 years at the south boreal site the values were 48% for twigs and 42% for branches. Based on earlier studies, we suggest that the decomposition rates that we determined may be used for estimating Scots pine FWD decomposition in the boreal zone, also in upland forests. Explanatory models accounted for 50.4% and 71.2% of the total variation in FWD decomposition rates when the first two and all years were considered, respectively. The variables most related to FWD decomposition included the initial ash, water extractives and Klason lignin content of litter, and cumulative site precipitation minus potential evapotranspiration. Simulations of inputs and decomposition of Scots pine FWD and needle litter in south boreal conditions over a 60-year period showed that 72 g m(-2) of organic matter from FWD vs. 365 g m(-2) from needles accumulated in the forest floor. The annual inputs varied from 5.7 to 15.6 g m(-2) and from 92 to 152 g m(-2) for FWD and needles, respectively. Each thinning caused an increase in FWD inputs, Up to 510 g m(-2), while the needle inputs did not change dramatically. Because the annual FWD inputs were lowered following the thinnings, the overall effect of thinnings on C accumulation from FWD was slightly negative. The contribution of FWD to soil C accumulation, relative to needle litter, seems to be rather minor in boreal Scots pine forests. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved."

Litter quality and its response to water level drawdown in boreal peatlands at plant species and community level

Changes in the structure of plant communities may have much more impact on ecosystem carbon (C) cycling than any phenotypic responses to environmental changes. We studied these impacts via the response of plant litter quality, at the level of species and community, to persistent water-level (WL) drawdown in peatlands. We studied three sites with different nutrient regimes, and water-level manipulations at two time scales. The parameters used to characterize litter quality included extractable substances, cellulose, holocellulose, composition of hemicellulose (neutral sugars, uronic acids), Klason lignin, CuO oxidation phenolic products, and concentrations of C and several nutrients. The litters formed four chemically distinct groups: non-graminoid foliar litters, graminoids, mosses and woody litters. Direct effects of WL drawdown on litter quality at the species level were overruled by indirect effects via changes in litter type composition. The pristine conditions were characterized by Sphagnum moss and graminoid litters. Short-term (years) responses of the litter inputs to WL drawdown were small. In longterm (decades), total litter inputs increased, due to increased tree litter inputs. Simultaneously, the litter type composition and its chemical quality at the community level greatly changed. The changes that we documented will strongly affect soil properties and C cycle of peatlands.

Lipeäkäsitellyn vehnän vaikutus lypsylehmien syöntiin ja tuotokseen vapaalla seosrehuruokinnalla

Lipeä on vahva emäs, jonka on havaittu lisäävän hemiselluloosan ja ligniinin hydrolyysiä pötsissä. Näin ollen lipeäkäsittelyllä on mahdollista korvata viljan mekaaninen litistys ja jauhatus. Seosrehuruokinnalla, jonka osana on lipeäkäsitelty vilja, on mahdollista vähentää liiallisesta tärkkelyksestä aiheutuvia metabolisia ongelmia pötsissä. Tämän tutkielman tarkoituksena oli selvittää lipeäkäsitellyn vehnän vaikutusta lypsylehmien syöntiin ja tuotokseen ad libitum seosrehuruokinnoilla. Ruokinnoissa korvattiin kuivaa murskattua vehnää asteittain kokonaisella lipeäkäsitellyllä vehnällä. Kontrollina oli perinteisesti käytetty kuiva, murskattu ohra-kaura seos. Koe tehtiin Ruotsin maatalousyliopiston (SLU) maataloustieteiden laitoksella Uumajassa. Koe alkoi syyskuussa ja päättyi joulukuussa 2010. Kokeessa oli 17 useamman kerran poikinutta lehmää ja 6 ensikkoa (Ruotsin punainen -rotu). Lehmät olivat lämpimässä pihattonavetassa, jossa seosrehun syöntiä mitattiin vaakakuppien avulla. Koekäsittelyt olivat murskattu ohra-kaura seos (1:1), murskattu kuiva vehnä (1:0), murskatun kuivan vehnän ja kokonaisen lipeävehnän seos (1:1) ja kokonainen lipeävehnä (1:0). Ruokintojen kuiva-ainepitoisuudeksi asetettiin 370 g/kg ja raakavalkuaispitoisuudeksi 180 g/kg kuiva-ainetta. Näennäinen ravintoaineen sulavuus määritettiin happoon liukenemattoman tuhkan avulla. Typen hyväksikäyttöä arvioitiin laskennallisen typpitaseen avulla. Koe toteutettiin 4x4 latinalaisen neliön koemallin mukaisesti ja käsittelyjen väliset tilastolliset erot testattiin kontrastien avulla. Kuiva-aineen (PQ=0,02) ja orgaanisen aineen (PQ=0,02) syönnit lisääntyivät, samalla kun niiden sulavuudet paranivat korvattaessa puolet kuivasta vehnästä lipeävehnällä. Ruokintojen välillä ei ollut tilastollisesti merkitsevää eroa maitotuotoksessa eikä energiakorjatussa maitotuotoksessa. Maidon rasvatuotos lisääntyi vähän (PQ=0,04) ja rasvapitoisuus selvästi (PQ=0,004), kun kuivasta vehnästä korvattiin puolet lipeävehnällä. Kun kaikki kuiva vehnä korvattiin lipeävehnällä, maidon valkuaispitoisuus väheni (PL<0,001). Samoin kävi maidon ureapitoisuudelle (PL=0,002). Lipeäkäsittely ei tuottanut tässä kokeessa taloudellisesti kannattavaa tulosta, sillä maidon valkuaispitoisuus väheni ja syönti lisääntyi maitotuotoksen pysyessä samana. Vehnäruokinnoista paras tuotosvaste saatiin kuivan vehnän ja lipeävehnän seoksella.

Anaerobic retting of banana and arecanut wastes in a plug flow digester for recovery of fiber, biogas and compost

Leaves and leaf sheath of banana and areca husk (Areca catechu) constitute an important component of urban solid waste (USW) in India which are difficult to degrade under normal windrow composting conditions. A successful method of anaerobic digestion built around the fermentation properties of these feedstock has been evolved which uses no moving parts, pretreatment or energy input while enabling recovery of four products: fiber, biogas, compost and pest repellent. An SRT of 27 d and 35 d was found to be optimum for fiber recovery for banana leaf and areca husk, respectively. Banana leaf showed a degradation pattern different from other leaves with slow pectin-1 degradation (80%) and 40% lignin removal in 27 d SRT. Areca husk however, showed a degradation pattern similar to other plant biomass. Mass recovery levels for banana leaf were fiber-20%, biogas-70% (400 ml/g TS) and compost-10%. For areca husk recovery was fiber-50%, biogas-45% (250 ml/g TS) and compost-5%. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The environmental and economic sustainability of potential bioethanol from willow in the UK.

Life cycle assessment has been used to investigate the environmental and economic sustainability of a potential operation in the UK in which bioethanol is produced from the hydrolysis and subsequent fermentation of coppice willow. If the willow were grown on idle arable land in the UK, or, indeed, in Eastern Europe and imported as wood chips into the UK, it was found that savings of greenhouse gas emissions of 70-90%, when compared to fossil-derived gasoline on an energy basis, would be possible. The process would be energetically self-sufficient, as the co-products, e.g. lignin and unfermented sugars, could be used to produce the process heat and electricity, with surplus electricity being exported to the National Grid. Despite the environmental benefits, the economic viability is doubtful at present. However, the cost of production could be reduced significantly if the willow were altered by breeding to improve its suitability for hydrolysis and fermentation.

Chelation-enforced metal-arene interactions : insights into substrate binding and catalysis by late transition metal complexes

Understanding and catalyzing chemical reactions requiring multiple electron transfers is an endeavor relevant to many outstanding challenges in the field of chemistry. To study multi-electron reactions, a terphenyl diphosphine framework was designed to support one or more metals in multiple redox states via stabilizing interactions with the central arene of the terphenyl backbone. A variety of unusual compounds and reactions and their relevance toward prominent research efforts in chemistry are the subject of this dissertation.

Chapter 2 introduces the para-terphenyl diphosphine framework and its coordination chemistry with group 10 transition metal centers. Both mononuclear and dinuclear compounds are characterized. In many cases, the metal center(s) are stabilized by the terphenyl central arene. These metal–arene interactions are characterized both statically, in the solid state, and fluxionally, in solution. As a proof-of-principle, a dinickel framework is shown to span multiple redox states, showing that multielectron chemistry can be supported by the coordinatively flexible terphenyl diphosphine.

Chapter 3 presents reactivity of the terphenyl diphosphine when bound to a metal center. Because of the dearomatizing effect of the metal center, the central arene of the ligand is susceptible to reactions that do not normally affect arenes. In particular, Ni-to-arene H-transfer and arene dihydrogenation reactions are presented. Additionally, evidence for reversibility of the Ni-to-arene H-transfer is discussed.

Chapter 4 expands beyond the chelated metal-arene interactions of the previous chapters. A dipalladium(I) terphenyl diphosphine framework is used to bind a variety of exogenous organic ligands including arenes, dienes, heteroarenes, thioethers, and anionic ligands. The compounds are structurally characterized, and many ligands exhibit unprecedented bindng modes across two metal centers. The relative binding affinities are evaluated spectroscopically, and equilibrium binding constants for the examined ligands are determined to span over 13 orders of magnitude. As an application of this framework, mild hydrogenation conditions of bound thiophene are presented.

Chapter 5 studies nickel-mediated C–O bond cleavage of aryl alkyl ethers, a transformation with emerging applications in fields such as lignin biofuels and organic methodology. Other group members have shown the mechanism of C–O bond cleavage of an aryl methyl ether incorporated into a meta-terphenyl diphosphine framework to proceed through β-H elimination of an alkoxide. First, the electronic selectivity of the model system is examined computationally and compared with catalytic systems. The lessons learned from the model system are then applied to isotopic labeling studies for catalytic aryl alkyl ether cleavage under dihydrogen. Results from selective deuteration experiments and mass spectrometry draw a clear analogy between the mechanisms of the model and catalytic systems that does not require dihydrogen for C–O bond cleavage, although dihydrogen is proposed to play a role in catalyst activation and catalytic turnover.

Appendix A presents initial efforts toward heterodinuclear complexes as models for CO dehydrogenase and Fischer Tropsch chemistry. A catechol-incorporating terphenyl diphosphine is reported, and metal complexes thereof are discussed.

Appendix B highlights some structurally characterized terphenyl diphosphine complexes that either do not thematically belong in the research chapters or proved to be difficult to reproduce. These compounds show unusual coordination modes of the terphenyl diphosphine from which other researchers may glean insights.

Caracterização e utilização do resíduo de palha de milho para obtenção de nanocelulose

Esta Dissertação discorre sobre a pesquisa de caracterização de palha de milho e a sua utilização como matéria prima para a obtenção de nanocelulose. Segundo o IBGE, este resíduo agrícola foi produzido no Brasil, no ano de 2013, em cerca de seis milhões de toneladas. As amostras deste resíduo lignocelulósico utilizadas neste trabalho foram coletadas na forma cotidiana de descarte mais frequentemente encontrada em supermercados e feiras livres. Procedeu-se, então, ao beneficiamento mecânico, beneficiamento químico (mercerização e branqueamento) e hidrólise ácida dessas amostras, o que produziu os seguintes materiais: palha de milho beneficiada mecanicamente, palha de milho beneficiada quimicamente e nanocelulose. Cada um destes materiais foi caracterizado, conforme o tipo, por menos ou mais dos seguintes ensaios: determinação de densidade, determinação de umidade, determinação do teor de cinzas, resistência à tração, determinação do teor de extraíveis, determinação do teor de holocelulose, determinação do teor de hemicelulose, determinação do teor de alfacelulose, determinação do teor de lignina, análise termogravimétrica (TGA), espectroscopia por infravermelho por transformada de Fourier (FTIR), índice de cristalinidade por difração de raios-x (CrI), medição do tamanho de partícula por espalhamento de luz dinâmico (DLS), morfologia por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) e determinação do rendimento dos produtos de hidrólise. Nesta pesquisa também se estudou, empregando a técnica de planejamento de experimento fatorial com ponto central, a influência dos fatores razão fibra/ácido e tempo da reação na obtenção da nanocelulose, conseguida com êxito em todos os experimentos executados com a palha de milho que foi branqueada de forma efetiva neste trabalho

Alterações eritrocitárias induzidas pelo exercício físico

Evidências crescentes têm demonstrado que o exercício prejudica a estrutura da membrana eritrocitária, como consequência do aumento do estresse físico e químico. O óxido nítrico (NO) derivado dos eritrócitos afeta a fluidez da membrana e a sua biodisponibilidade depende do equilíbrio entre a sua síntese e eliminação por espécies reativas de oxigênio. Nós investigamos se o exercício realizado em diferentes intensidades afetaria biodisponibilidade do NO eritrocitário e se levaria a um quadro de estresse oxidativo. Dez homens (26 4 anos, VO2pico 44,1 4,3 mL.kg-1.min-1) realizaram um teste cardiopulmonar máximo em esteira e um teste de exercício submáximo a 70% VO2pico durante 30 min. O sangue foi coletado em repouso e imediatamente após os exercícios para isolamento dos eritrócitos. O exercício máximo aumentou a contagem de eritrócitos, hemoglobina e hematócrito, sem levar a qualquer alteração na massa corporal que pudesse sugerir hemoconcentração devido a uma redução do volume plasmático. Observou-se uma diminuição do influxo de L-arginina depois do teste submáximo, mas não no teste máximo. No entanto, a atividade da óxido nítrico sintase, ou seja, a produção de NO, foi aumentada após o teste máximo. Os níveis de GMPc não se alteraram após ambos os teste de exercício. Em relação aos biomarcadores de estresse oxidativo, o exercício submáximo reduziu a oxidação proteica e aumentou a atividade da catalase e a expressão da glutationa peroxidase, enquanto que o exercício máximo levou a uma maior peroxidação lipídica e diminuição da atividade da SOD. Nem a atividade glutationa peroxidase ou a expressão NADPH oxidase foram afetadas pelo exercício. Estes resultados sugerem que o exercício induziu alterações no estresse oxidativo de eritrócitos, que parecem estar mais associadas com a intensidade do que a duração do execicio. Além disso, nas intensidades recomendadas para a promoção da saúde, o exercício mostrou ser protetor, aumentando a atividade e a expressão de enzimas antioxidantes importantes e reduzindo os danos oxidativos.

小麦肉桂酰辅酶A还原酶（CCR）基因的分离和功能分析

作为植物界广泛存在的一类酚类聚合物，木质素是陆生植物正常生长发育过程中非常重要的生物大分子，而且与人类的生活息息相关。利用分子生物学手段和基因工程方法，从小麦中分离木质素生物合成途径的关键酶-肉桂酰辅酶A还原酶基因（CCR），研究肉桂酰辅酶A还原酶基因在木质素代谢途径中的调控规律，从其催化的限速步骤入手，来调控木质素的合成，有效的改变木质素的组成、含量和结构，是改善木质素在植物生长发育中的作用乃至开发木质素资源的关键所在。本文就小麦肉桂酰辅酶A还原酶基因的分离、表达特征及其在木质素合成途径中的作用开展了研究工作。 首先用RACE方法从小麦中克隆了CCR的两个cDNA的部分序列，序列分析表明它们编码的蛋白具有CCR的典型特点，GC含量高于均60%，两者在核酸水平和蛋白水平的同源性为76%和 69%，证明在小麦中至少存在着两个CCR基因。通过 RT-PCR和Northern 杂交确定W-cr6和W-cr19在小麦的发育中具有不同的表达特征，W-cr6主要在茎中表达，而W-cr19的表达集中在根中。以W-cr6为探针，从cDNA文库中筛选到一个全长1317bp的cDNA，命名为TaCCR1。TaCCR1包括开放阅读框 (ORF) 1047bp、5′端侧翼 72bp和3′端侧翼198bp的非翻译序列。TaCCR1能够编码由349个氨基酸组成的蛋白质，预期的分子量为37.4kD。同源性比较显示TaCCR1基因在核酸水平和蛋白质水平与其他物种的CCR基因的同源性高于60%。 为了分析CCR在木质素合成中的作用，用TaCCR1构建了用于转化烟草的正义和反义表达载体pStCCR和pAtCCR、用于转化小麦的正义和反义表达载体pBSC1和pBAC1。通过农杆菌介导得到了30株反义转基因烟草和12株正义转基因烟草。由于外源基因的抑制作用，转基因烟草在形态、木质素组成和含量、木质部显微结构上都程度不同的发生了变化。正义和反义的转基因株系呈现出株型矮化、木质素含量下降、木质部导管细胞壁受到破坏等现象。同时利用花粉管通道法转化小麦种子5000多粒，部分处理经过初步的PCR和 Southern分子鉴定获得了1株转基因株系，需要对其遗传、生理和形态特征做进一步的研究。 本文还对木质素对小麦茎杆的机械强度的影响做了初步的探讨，得到的结果是小麦茎杆的木质素含量、维管束的数量、茎杆有效的横界面积与其最大弯曲应力存在着正相关，而维管束的结构、密度对茎杆的最大弯曲应力没有明显的影响，从而为通过CCR基因来改善小麦茎杆的抗倒特性建立了生理学基础。

毛竹茎木质化过程的组织细胞学研究

应用光学显微镜和透射电子显微镜，并结合组织化学和细胞化学方法，研究了毛竹（Phyllostachys pubescens Mazel）茎各组织中细胞壁的木质化过程、木质素异质性、酚酸类成分的分布、木质素在细胞壁中的沉积方式以及过氧化物酶的组织、细胞化学定位等。 研究结果表明：毛竹茎的原生木质部导管在维管束发育早期就已木质化;后生木质部导管和纤维细胞在维管束分化完成后，自胞间层和细胞角隅处开始木质化;基本薄壁组织细胞木质化的发生较晚，通常在茎的节间完成伸长生长后才开始，但也有少数薄壁组织细胞始终保持非木质化的薄壁状态。根据可见光显微分光光度的分析结果，纤维细胞壁在木质化的早期，主要形成愈创木基木质素（guaiacyl lignin）, 随着木质化过程的发展，紫丁得基木质素（syringyl lignin）含量不断增加，最后成为纤维细胞壁木质素的主要组成成分。导管分子的木质素主要成分为愈创木基木质素，基本薄壁组织细胞壁为愈创木基与紫丁香基两种。 毛竹茎各组织在紫外光激发下自发荧光的荧光显微分光光度分析表明，氨水处理可以有效地识别阿魏酸的分布，如在竹笋各种幼嫩组织中均分布有阿魏酸;而用过氧化氢／冰醋酸混合液处理，则可以区分木素与结合于半纤维素中的阿魏酸和对－香豆酸，随着毛竹茎的生长和细胞壁木质化的增加，阿魏酸的含量下降。 通过对毛竹茎纤维细胞壁木质化过程中超微结构的观察表明，高尔基体、高尔基小泡、内质网、壁旁体细胞器在木质素前体的形成和运输等方面均起着重要作用，而周质微管在细胞壁木质化过程中的具体作用方式尚不明确。木质素在细胞壁中的沉积方式分别为：胞间层的木质素呈分散的颗粒状沉积方式，导管次生壁的木质素为片层状沉积方式，而在纤维细胞次生壁Sl层中，木质素为团块状的沉积方式。木质素沉积方式与纤维素微纤丝的排列有密切关系。 在毛竹茎各组织的细胞壁尚未木质化之前，过氧化物酶仅分布于细胞角隅处，随着细胞次生壁的增厚和木质化的增强，过氧化物酶可大量出现在次生壁中;在纤维细胞次生壁中，木质素含量较高的St各层，过氧化物酶活性也较强，而木质素含量较低的Sl各层，过氧化物酶活性则较弱。由此表明，过氧化物酶直接参与了细胞壁木质素的合成。另外，在茎的部分基本薄壁组织细胞和韧皮部等未木质化的细胞壁中，过氧化物酶也同样表现出较强的活性，这说明在茎的不同组织中分布的这种酶，可能是几种不同功能的同工酶形式。

毛白杨（Populus tomentosa）木质素生物合成相关基因分离与木质素合成调节

木质素是植物体中具重要生物功能的次生代谢产物。然而纸浆生产主要是将原料中的木质素与用于造纸的纤维素分离，该工艺过程产生了造纸工业的主要污染废液，并且增加造纸成本。本研究目的在于利用反义RNA技术，在分子水平调节木质素的生物合成，降低中国特有造纸树种毛白杨的木质素含量，培育更适于我国造纸工业的原料树种。以下为本研究已取得的相关研究进展： 1.通过RT-PCR技术，从毛白杨中克隆了木质素生物合成的三个相关酶的cDNAs，它们分别为咖啡酸甲基转移酶(caffeic acid O-methyltransferase，COMT)、咖啡酰CoA甲基转移酶(caffeoyl Co-enzyme A O-methyltransferase，CCoAOMT)及香豆酸：辅酶A连接酶(4-coumarate: CoA ligase，4CL)。序列分析显示了毛白杨这三个基因与杨属中其它种的相应基因cDNA核苷酸序列高度同源。Northern点杂交分析表明，COMT、CCoAOMT及4CL基因在毛白杨正在生长的次生木质部中高水平表达，其表达高峰与树木的木质化进程同步;而在叶与叶柄中，这三个基因均不表达。COMT、CCoAOMT及4CL是木质素生物合成的相关酶，该表达特征与其基因功能相一致。本研究克隆的COMT、CCoAOMT及4CL基因的cDNAs已在GenBank注册登记，接受号分别为AF237777、AF240466、AF314180 (publish on Jan l,2002)。 2.通过一系列的DNA重组，构建了携带反义COMT、CCoAOMT或4CLcDNA的反义表达载体以及同时整合反义COMT与CCoAOMT cDNA的双价反义表达载体，PCR扩增与酶切检测确证构建无误。 3.以田间取材的速生三倍体毛白杨B19、B331及B304的茎尖、叶片与嫩茎为外殖体，首次获得了三倍体毛白杨的组培再生试管苗，并建立了速生三倍体毛白杨的组培再生系统，为通过基因工程改良其造纸性能奠定了基础。 4.农杆菌介导转化烟草，PCR与PCR-Southern检测表明我们获得了整合反义COMT、CCoAOMT cDNA及反义COMT及CCoAOMT cDNA共整合的转基因烟草。以Digoxigenin标记的对应于反义链的单链RNA为探针与转基因烟草的总RNA进行NoIthern点杂交，结果表明整合到其中的反义cDNA均已表达。转基因烟草的木质素分析将有助于对COMT及CCoAOMT两个甲基化酶功能的认识。 5.通过农杆菌介导，将反义CCoAOMT cDNA转入欧洲山杨与银白杨的杂交杨（P tremulaXP.alba）。经PCR，PCR-Southern及Southern检测，确认获得了转基因植株。以Digoxigenin标记的对应于CCoAOMT cDNA反义链的单链RNA为探针与转基因杂交杨总RNA进行Northern点杂交，结果表明整合到其中的反义cDNA已在转录水平表达。测定生长5-6个月的转基因杨树下部茎杆的Klason木质素含量，结果显示其中一个株系的Klason木质素含量比野生型对照下降17.9%，表明抑制杨树内源CCoAOMT基因表达可有效降低转基因植株的木质素含量。

分子调控咖啡酸-O-甲基转移酶（COMT）对木质素合成及植物生长发育的影响

本论文由两部分组成，一、构建来自小麦的COMT的反义表达载体，转化烟草，研究抑制内源COMT对植物木质素合成及其生长发育的影响;二、利用花粉管通道法，将正义和反义COMT基因转化小麦，获得转基因小麦，从而进一步分析。 一、 反义抑制COMT对植物木质素合成及其生长发育的影响 构建含有小麦的咖啡酸-O-甲基转移酶（COMT）cDNA的反义表达载体, 利用农杆菌法转化烟草。 PCR, PCR-Southern 检测显示目的基因片段成功转入烟草基因组。处于营养生长期的转基因植株表型与对照没有明显差异;而发育成熟的转基因植株的植株矮化，茎部木质素含量与对照差异不大，木质素的组成S/G比下降，部分木质部细胞发生变形。我们还发现转基因烟草种子发芽率提高，移栽2个月的子一代转基因植株光合速率、蒸腾速率有所增强。结果表明通过反义抑制COMT将影响木质素合成,并在不同的发育阶段，影响着植物的生长发育。 二、 利用花粉管通道法获得转基因小麦 将构建好的含有Bar基因的正义和反义COMT表达载体利用花粉管法转化两个小麦品种（H4564和C6001），共获得转基因处理的种子1117颗，重新播种后，发育成苗分别为321株，总成苗率为28.7%。通过除草剂PPT筛选，分别获得PPT抗性植株31株。PCR检测抗性植株，获得PCR检测阳性植株5株，总阳性率为0.45%。阳性植株分别为H4564反义处理株1株，C6001的正义和反义处理株各2株。对小麦的植株高度，分蘖数等生理性状的分析发现，转基因小麦的分蘖数减少，植株高度降低。这些生理性状的改变与COMT基因转化的关系将有待于进一步验证。

利用反义RNA技术进行木质素生物合成调控的研究

木质素是一类酚类次生代谢产物，在植物体内行使重要的生理功能，但它却是形成造纸污染的主要来源。利用基因工程手段，在分子水平调节木质素的生物合成，降低木质素的含量或改变组分以培育适合造纸的植物原料树种具有较大的应用价值和环保效益。本研究利用反义RNA技术，主要围绕木质素合成三种相关酶咖啡酸-O-甲基转移酶（COMT）、咖啡酰辅酶A-O-甲基转移酶(CCoAOMT)、4-香豆酸：辅酶A连接酶（4CL）的基因对植物木质素生物合成途径调节的研究，取得如下进展： 1.农杆菌介导法将COMT和CCoAOMT基因的单价和双价的反义表达载体导入烟草，比较了两个甲基化酶的功能。PCR-Southern和Northern点杂交结果表明反义基因已整合到烟草基因组DNA上，并在转录水平表达。两种反义基因对木质素生物合成调节的效果显示，CCoAOMT能更有效地调节木质素生物总量的合成，COMT仅特异调节S木质素的合成。表达反义CCoAOMT基因的转基因毛白杨，内源CCoAOMT基因的表达在转录和蛋白水平均受到抑制，最终引起转基因植株木质素含量普遍降低，最多降低达26.20%，筛选出木质素含量下降10%以上的转基因毛白杨株系8个，为源头治理造纸废水污染奠定了基础。 2． 对克隆的4CL基因进行了表达特性分析， RT-PCR分析表明，分离的毛白杨4CL基因主要在木质部丰富表达，叶中表达量较少，树皮中不表达。在毛白杨的一个生长季，该基因表达显示明显的双锋特征，该表达模式与木材早材和晚材的发育时期相吻合，表明分离的毛白杨4CL基因与木质素的生物合成密切相关。农杆菌介导法将反义4CL基因导入烟草和毛白杨，利用分子生物学检测手段对转化植株进行筛选，获得批量转基因植株。Klason木质素含量测定分析表明，抑制内源4CL基因表达，能有效降低转基因植物中的木质素含量，且不影响植株正常生长和发育以及碳水化合物的合成。转基因毛白杨的茎杆上一些区域呈红棕色，颜色的深度与转基因毛白杨木质素含量的下降幅度呈一定的正相关性，颜色变化可作为转基因植株筛选的一个辅助指标。现已获得木质素含量下降10%以上的转基因株系3个，最多下降达41.73%，可供中试与制浆实验，为培育低木质素环保型毛白杨提供理论与实践依据。 3.为了优化现有的表达框架，使目的基因更有效地调节木质素的生物合成，应用PCR技术从毛白杨基因组中分离得到C4H(肉桂酸4—羟基化酶)基因启动子片段（GenBank注册号：AY351673）。GUS荧光活性分析和组织化学染色显示，该启动子在一些木质化的组织和器官中特异表达，随着组织成熟度和木质化程度的增加，表达活性逐渐增强，并且该启动子受伤诱导。反义CCoAOMT基因在C4H启动子的调控下，会引起转基因烟草木质素均有不同程度的减少，但不影响碳向碳水化合物的转换合成，对植物的生长发育也无明显负效应。这些结果证明了从毛白杨中分离的C4H 启动子可以应用于造纸原料树种材性改良的遗传工程操作。 4．首次从水稻中华10号（Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica）分离了CCoAOMT基因家族的三个成员，对其基因结构及表达特性的分析表明，该基因家族的三个成员与水稻的木质化进程关系密切，研究结果有助于了解单子叶植物中的甲基化途径发生机制，为高产水稻抗倒伏和茎杆饲料作物的遗传改良奠定了基础。