The influence of a weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation on ENSO

The influences of a substantial weakening of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) on the tropical Pacific climate mean state, the annual cycle, and ENSO variability are studied using five different coupled general circulation models (CGCMs). In the CGCMs, a substantial weakening of the AMOC is induced by adding freshwater flux forcing in the northern North Atlantic. In response, the well-known surface temperature dipole in the low-latitude Atlantic is established, which reorganizes the large-scale tropical atmospheric circulation by increasing the northeasterly trade winds. This leads to a southward shift of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) in the tropical Atlantic and also the eastern tropical Pacific. Because of evaporative fluxes, mixing, and changes in Ekman divergence, a meridional temperature anomaly is generated in the northeastern tropical Pacific, which leads to the development of a meridionally symmetric thermal background state. In four out of five CGCMs this leads to a substantial weakening of the annual cycle in the eastern equatorial Pacific and a subsequent intensification of ENSO variability due to nonlinear interactions. In one of the CGCM simulations, an ENSO intensification occurs as a result of a zonal mean thermocline shoaling. Analysis suggests that the atmospheric circulation changes forced by tropical Atlantic SSTs can easily influence the large-scale atmospheric circulation and hence tropical eastern Pacific climate. Furthermore, it is concluded that the existence of the present-day tropical Pacific cold tongue complex and the annual cycle in the eastern equatorial Pacific are partly controlled by the strength of the AMOC. The results may have important implications for the interpretation of global multidecadal variability and paleo-proxy data.

Iron Uptake and Homeostasis in Microorganisms

Preface. Iron is considered to be a minor element employed, in a variety of forms, by nearly all living organisms. In some cases, it is utilised in large quantities, for instance for the formation of magnetosomes within magnetotactic bacteria or during use of iron as a respiratory donor or acceptor by iron oxidising or reducing bacteria. However, in most cases the role of iron is restricted to its use as a cofactor or prosthetic group assisting the biological activity of many different types of protein. The key metabolic processes that are dependent on iron as a cofactor are numerous; they include respiration, light harvesting, nitrogen fixation, the Krebs cycle, redox stress resistance, amino acid synthesis and oxygen transport. Indeed, it is clear that Life in its current form would be impossible in the absence of iron. One of the main reasons for the reliance of Life upon this metal is the ability of iron to exist in multiple redox states, in particular the relatively stable ferrous (Fe2+) and ferric (Fe3+) forms. The availability of these stable oxidation states allows iron to engage in redox reactions over a wide range of midpoint potentials, depending on the coordination environment, making it an extremely adaptable mediator of electron exchange processes. Iron is also one of the most common elements within the Earth’s crust (5% abundance) and thus is considered to have been readily available when Life evolved on our early, anaerobic planet. However, as oxygen accumulated (the ‘Great oxidation event’) within the atmosphere some 2.4 billion years ago, and as the oceans became less acidic, the iron within primordial oceans was converted from its soluble reduced form to its weakly-soluble oxidised ferric form, which precipitated (~1.8 billion years ago) to form the ‘banded iron formations’ (BIFs) observed today in Precambrian sedimentary rocks around the world. These BIFs provide a geological record marking a transition point away from the ancient anaerobic world towards modern aerobic Earth. They also indicate a period over which the bio-availability of iron shifted from abundance to limitation, a condition that extends to the modern day. Thus, it is considered likely that the vast majority of extant organisms face the common problem of securing sufficient iron from their environment – a problem that Life on Earth has had to cope with for some 2 billion years. This struggle for iron is exemplified by the competition for this metal amongst co-habiting microorganisms who resort to stealing (pirating) each others iron supplies! The reliance of micro-organisms upon iron can be disadvantageous to them, and to our innate immune system it represents a chink in the microbial armour, offering an opportunity that can be exploited to ward off pathogenic invaders. In order to infect body tissues and cause disease, pathogens must secure all their iron from the host. To fight such infections, the host specifically withdraws available iron through the action of various iron depleting processes (e.g. the release of lactoferrin and lipocalin-2) – this represents an important strategy in our defence against disease. However, pathogens are frequently able to deploy iron acquisition systems that target host iron sources such as transferrin, lactoferrin and hemoproteins, and thus counteract the iron-withdrawal approaches of the host. Inactivation of such host-targeting iron-uptake systems often attenuates the pathogenicity of the invading microbe, illustrating the importance of ‘the battle for iron’ in the infection process. The role of iron sequestration systems in facilitating microbial infections has been a major driving force in research aimed at unravelling the complexities of microbial iron transport processes. But also, the intricacy of such systems offers a challenge that stimulates the curiosity. One such challenge is to understand how balanced levels of free iron within the cytosol are achieved in a way that avoids toxicity whilst providing sufficient levels for metabolic purposes – this is a requirement that all organisms have to meet. Although the systems involved in achieving this balance can be highly variable amongst different microorganisms, the overall strategy is common. On a coarse level, the homeostatic control of cellular iron is maintained through strict control of the uptake, storage and utilisation of available iron, and is co-ordinated by integrated iron-regulatory networks. However, much yet remains to be discovered concerning the fine details of these different iron regulatory processes. As already indicated, perhaps the most difficult task in maintaining iron homeostasis is simply the procurement of sufficient iron from external sources. The importance of this problem is demonstrated by the plethora of distinct iron transporters often found within a single bacterium, each targeting different forms (complex or redox state) of iron or a different environmental condition. Thus, microbes devote considerable cellular resource to securing iron from their surroundings, reflecting how successful acquisition of iron can be crucial in the competition for survival. The aim of this book is provide the reader with an overview of iron transport processes within a range of microorganisms and to provide an indication of how microbial iron levels are controlled. This aim is promoted through the inclusion of expert reviews on several well studied examples that illustrate the current state of play concerning our comprehension of how iron is translocated into the bacterial (or fungal) cell and how iron homeostasis is controlled within microbes. The first two chapters (1-2) consider the general properties of microbial iron-chelating compounds (known as ‘siderophores’), and the mechanisms used by bacteria to acquire haem and utilise it as an iron source. The following twelve chapters (3-14) focus on specific types of microorganism that are of key interest, covering both an array of pathogens for humans, animals and plants (e.g. species of Bordetella, Shigella, , Erwinia, Vibrio, Aeromonas, Francisella, Campylobacter and Staphylococci, and EHEC) as well as a number of prominent non-pathogens (e.g. the rhizobia, E. coli K-12, Bacteroides spp., cyanobacteria, Bacillus spp. and yeasts). The chapters relay the common themes in microbial iron uptake approaches (e.g. the use of siderophores, TonB-dependent transporters, and ABC transport systems), but also highlight many distinctions (such as use of different types iron regulator and the impact of the presence/absence of a cell wall) in the strategies employed. We hope that those both within and outside the field will find this book useful, stimulating and interesting. We intend that it will provide a source for reference that will assist relevant researchers and provide an entry point for those initiating their studies within this subject. Finally, it is important that we acknowledge and thank wholeheartedly the many contributors who have provided the 14 excellent chapters from which this book is composed. Without their considerable efforts, this book, and the understanding that it relays, would not have been possible. Simon C Andrews and Pierre Cornelis

Warfarin susceptibility in the lesser bandicoot rat (Bandicota bengalensis)

Warfarin is a first generation anticoagulant that relies on multiple feeding events to achieve lethality in susceptible rodents. For the Bandicoot rat, warfarin susceptibility baselines were established using the lethal feeding period (LFP) test methodology. Against a 0.003% warfarin formulation, LFP50 values of 2 and 4 days, and LFP99 values of 16 and 10 days were obtained for males and females respectively. However, consumption of rodenticide was significantly reduced after the 4th and 5th days of test, at a time when animals would be expected to experience symptoms of warfarin toxicity. This would seriously compromise the Probit analysis, particularly for estimates of higher percentiles. Possible modifications to the methodology are discussed to overcome this problem. Although the majority of animals were highly susceptible to warfarin, one female animal that survived a high dose of active ingredient (79.1 mg kg-1) may bode for future resistance

A nipple shield delivery system for oral drug delivery to breastfeeding infants : Microbicide delivery to inactivate HIV

A new drug delivery method for infants is presented which incorporates an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API)-loaded insert into a nipple shield delivery system (NSDS). The API is released directly into milk during breastfeeding. This study investigates the feasibility of using the NSDS to deliver the microbicide sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), with the goal of preventing mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV during breastfeeding in low-resource settings, when there is no safer alternative for the infant but to breastfeed. SDS has been previously shown to effectively inactivate HIV in human milk. An apparatus was developed to simulate milk flow through and drug release from a NSDS. Using this apparatus milk was pulsed through a prototype device containing a non-woven fiber insert impregnated with SDS and the microbicide was rapidly released. The total SDS release from inserts ranged from 70 to 100% of the average 0.07 g load within 50 ml (the volume of a typical breastfeed). Human milk spiked with H9/HIVIIIB cells was also passed through the same set-up. Greater than 99% reduction of cell-associated HIV infectivity was achieved in the first 10 ml of milk. This proof of concept study demonstrates efficient drug delivery to breastfeeding infants is achievable using the NSDS.

Joint criminal enterprise

The doctrine of joint criminal enterprise is in disarray. Despite repeated judicial scrutiny at the highest level, the doctrine's scope, proper doctrinal basis and function in relation to other modes of complicity remain uncertain. This article examines the doctrine's elements and underlying principles. It argues that while joint criminal enterprise is largely used to make individuals liable for offences committed by their associates in excess of the common criminal purpose, its proper function is to police the limits of associate liability and thus to exculpate rather than inculpate. The doctrine governs not only instances of accessorial liability; it also applies where the parties involved are joint principal offenders. As this puts into question the prevalent view that joint criminal enterprise is a form of secondary participation that results in accessorial liability, the article concludes that it is best seen as a doctrine sui generis.

The greening of Arabia: multiple opportunities for human occupation of the Arabian peninsula during the Late Pleistocene inferred from an ensemble of climate model simulations

Climate models are potentially useful tools for addressing human dispersals and demographic change. The Arabian Peninsula is becoming increasingly significant in the story of human dispersals out of Africa during the Late Pleistocene. Although characterised largely by arid environments today, emerging climate records indicate that the peninsula was wetter many times in the past, suggesting that the region may have been inhabited considerably more than hitherto thought. Explaining the origins and spatial distribution of increased rainfall is challenging because palaeoenvironmental research in the region is in an early developmental stage. We address environmental oscillations by assembling and analysing an ensemble of five global climate models (CCSM3, COSMOS, HadCM3, KCM, and NorESM). We focus on precipitation, as the variable is key for the development of lakes, rivers and savannas. The climate models generated here were compared with published palaeoenvironmental data such as palaeolakes, speleothems and alluvial fan records as a means of validation. All five models showed, to varying degrees, that the Arabia Peninsula was significantly wetter than today during the Last Interglacial (130 ka and 126/125 ka timeslices), and that the main source of increased rainfall was from the North African summer monsoon rather than the Indian Ocean monsoon or from Mediterranean climate patterns. Where available, 104 ka (MIS 5c), 56 ka (early MIS 3) and 21 ka (LGM) timeslices showed rainfall was present but not as extensive as during the Last Interglacial. The results favour the hypothesis that humans potentially moved out of Africa and into Arabia on multiple occasions during pluvial phases of the Late Pleistocene.

Mens rea in joint enterprise: a role for endorsement?

This paper argues that the problems commonly associated with the joint enterprise doctrine might be alleviated by supplementing the cognitive mens rea standard of foresight with a volitional element that looks to how the defendant related to the foreseen risk. A re-examination of the case law suggests that a mens rea conception of foresight plus endorsement might be within interpretative reach. The paper considers possible objections to such a development but ultimately rejects them. It concludes that it is not necessary to wait for Parliament to put in place reforms: joint enterprise is a creature of the common law, and the common law is able to tame it unaided.

Long-term nitric oxide deficiency causes muscarinic supersensitivity and reduces beta(3)-adrenoceptor-mediated relaxation, causing rat detrusor overactivity

Background and purpose: Overactive bladder is a complex and widely prevalent condition, but little is known about its physiopathology. We have carried out morphological, biochemical and functional assays to investigate the effects of long-term nitric oxide (NO) deficiency on muscarinic receptor and beta-adrenoceptor modulation leading to overactivity of rat detrusor muscle. Experimental approach: Male Wistar rats received No-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) in drinking water for 7-30 days. Functional responses to muscarinic and b-adrenoceptor agonists were measured in detrusor smooth muscle (DSM) strips in Krebs-Henseleit solution. Measurements of [H-3] inositol phosphate, NO synthase (NOS) activity, [H-3] quinuclidinyl benzilate ([H-3]QNB) binding and bladder morphology were also performed. Key results: Long-term L-NAME treatment significantly increased carbachol-induced DSM contractile responses after 15 and 30 days; relaxing responses to the beta(3)-adrenoceptor agonist BRL 37-344 were significantly reduced at 30 days. Constitutive NOS activity in bladder was reduced by 86% after 7 days and maintained up to 30 days of L-NAME treatment. Carbachol increased sixfold the [H-3] inositol phosphate in bladder tissue from rats treated with L-NAME. [H-3] QNB was bound with an apparent KD twofold higher in bladder membranes after L-NAME treatment compared with that in control. No morphological alterations in DSM were found. Conclusions and implications: Long-term NO deficiency increased rat DSM contractile responses to a muscarinic agonist, accompanied by significantly enhanced KD values for muscarinic receptors and [H-3] inositol phosphate accumulation in bladder. This supersensitivity for muscarinic agonists along with reductions of beta(3)-adrenoceptor-mediated relaxations indicated that overactive DSM resulted from chronic NO deficiency.

The role of endothelin pathway in modulation of airway reactivity to methacholine in C57Bl/6 and BALB/c mice

Endothelin peptides have been shown to increase cholinergic neurotransmission in the airway. Genetic differences in airway responsiveness to methacholine where reported in mice. The present study compared the airway reactivity to methacholine in C57Bl/6 and BALB/c mice, the involvement of endothelin on this reactivity and endothelin levels in lung homogenates. Whole airway reactivity was analyzed by means of an isolated lung preparation where lungs were perfused through the trachea with warm gassed Krebs solution at 5 ml/min, and changes in perfusion pressure triggered by methacholine at increasing bolus doses (0.1-100 mu g) were recorded. We found that the maximal airway response to methacholine was much greater in C57Bl/6 than in BALB/c (Emax 34 +/- 2 vs 12 +/- 1 cmH(2)O, respectively). Bosentan (mixed endothelin A/B receptor antagonist; 10 mg/kg, i.p., 30 min before sacrifice) reduced lung responsiveness to methacholine in C57Bl/6 (58% at EC50 level) but had no effect in BALB/c mouse strain. This effect seems to be mediated by the endothelin ETA receptor since it was significantly reduced by the selective endothelin ETA receptor antagonist, BQ 123. Immunoreactive endothelin levels were higher in C57Bl/6 than in BALB/c lungs (43 5 vs 19 +/- 5 pg/g of tissue). In conclusion, airway reactivity to methacholine and lung endothelins content varies markedly between C57Bl/6 and BALB/c strains. Endothelins upregulate lung responsiveness to methacholine only in C57Bl/6, an effect achieved through the endothelin ETA receptor. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A natureza teleológica do princípio darwiniano de seleção natural : a articulação do metafísico e do epistemológico na origem das espécies

A presente tese tem por objetivo o exame da natureza explicativa do princípio de seleção natural (PSN) na Origem das Espécies de Charles Darwin, enquanto tal princípio exibe uma natureza teleológica, como ponto de articulação entre suas dimensões metafísica e epistemológica. A motivação inicial para este estudo encontrou-se num interesse mais profundo pela questão da "racionalidade", através do exame das relações entre ciência e nÃo-ciência provocada pelo reacender-se das discussões sobre evolucionismo versus criacionismo, nas escolas norte-americanas na década de 80. Todavia, uma detida leitura da Origem e o rastreamento de seu questionamento na trajetória intelectual de Darwin buscando empreender uma análise cuidadosa da teoria darwiniana como exigência prévia àquele exame mostrou-se, por si só, filosoficamente tão rica e absorvente, que direcionou a essa análise todos os esforços da presente tese. De imediato, o caráter multifacético dos padrões explicativos e das estratégias argumentativas encontradas na elaboração e defesa da teoria apresentada por Darwin na Origem das Espécies indicava a relevância de uma análise de PSN para a história e filosofia da ciência. De sua leitura igualmente aflorava uma nova abordagem para a questão teleológica, tema instigante nos questionamentos contemporâneos. O exame então empreendido teve, entre seus pressupostos orientadores, quatro pontos-chave: (1) a percepção do mútuo remetimento da História e da Filosofia da Ciência para a elucidaçÃo da natureza da produçÃo científica, partilhando certas idéias básicas das análises feitas por Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend e Imre Lakatos, entre outros, e, sobretudo, seu reconhecimento do papel do núcleo metafísico presente no questionamento científico; (2) a busca de uma compreensão contextualizadora da estrutura lógico-conceitual em que se insere a função e sentido do princípio a ser investigado, (a) privilegiando o contexto "interno" da obra e do desenvolvimento do pensamento de Darwin, mas buscando o contraponto esclarecedor em seu contexto "externo" e (b) construindo um referencial de análise emergente da estrutura contextual; (3) a visualização de uma relação todo-parte de mútuo suporte na estruturação da integridade contextual, constituindo uma tessitura tipo rede, em que a clarificação das partes, considerada sua posição no todo, faz avançar a inteligibilidade desse e confere-lhe sustentação, a qual, em troca, reverte em clarificação e fortalecimento das partes; (4) a busca de um novo enfoque da teleologia, numa nova perspectiva das relações explicativas e causais, pelo exame das bases metafísicas e epistemológicas da questão à época de Darwin e de tematizações e ambigüidades que permeiam o seu tratamento contemporaneamente. À luz de tais pressupostos, o fio condutor de trabalho é a análise da Origem das Espécies, em sua 6ª. ediçÃo inglesa (a última revisada pelo próprio Darwin), buscando complementar as requeridas elucidações, sobretudo no que concerne a certos pressupostos do pensamento de Darwin, nas obras e textos que perfazem sua trajetória intelectual (diário da viagem a bordo do Beagle, Notebooks 1836-1844, Ensaios de 1842 e 1844, o longo manuscrito de 1856-1858, correspondência) até a exposição madura de seu pensamento na Origem. Assim procedendo, o exame da natureza explicativa de PSN parte (I Parte) de uma leitura da Origem das Espécies como uma história da Natureza, constituindo o contexto no qual cabe dimensionar a função e sentido de PSN como a parte privilegiada da argumentação/narrativa da Origem como um todo (capítulo 1). Desse modo, a clarificação de PSN, encerrando a idéia mestra de que as espécies na Natureza originamse umas de outras por seleção natural, demanda a inteligibilidade e integração provida por esse princípio ao contexto da obra, ao "um longo argumento" em sua integridade, e essa inteligibilidade reverte em clarificação do próprio princípio. Nesse sentido, a atenção à estrutura argumentativa/narrativa da Origem permite ver como as partes desse argumento/os capítulos da narrativa estruturam-se, fugindo às rotulações usuais de um modelo "indutivo" ou "dedutivo", e constituindo, antes, uma rede argumentativa, em que os avanços, a seqüência dos capítulos, leva a retomadas, a uma nova inteligibilidade das etapas/capítulos anteriores, fortalecendo, na integridade desse movimento, as bases para novos avanços e crescentes explicitações e fortalecimento de sua sustentaçÃo. A atençÃo a esse movimento argumentativo leva igualmente a uma análise conceitual de "PSN" e "Natureza", ao longo da obra. Para tanto, procede-se a uma cuidadosa análise lógicosemântica da ocorrência desses conceitos no texto (capítulos 2 e 3, respectivamente), encontrando na visão de Natureza como "luta pela existência" um ponto privilegiado para a exploração de sua articulação. A análise realizada na primeira parte revela a natureza epistemológica e metafísica de PSN em sua condição explicativa e permite colocar a peculiar relação que se estabelece entre PSN (parte) e Natureza (todo) em termos de uma visão teleológica. No entanto, um aprofundamento desse ponto pede, antes (II parte), um exame mais detido dos conceitos de "explicação" e de "causa" na perspectiva darwiniana. Buscando uma compreensão contextualizadora, o contraponto "externo" ao contexto da Origem é balizado pelo enfoque dos padrões de cientificidade encontrados nas filosofias da ciência de John Herschel, William Whewell e Stuart Mill (capítulo 4). A construção de um referencial "interno", ponto a ser enfatizado, parte da análise lógico-conceitual do uso de "explicaçÃo", "causa" e cognatos feito no texto, levando, através de sucessivos refinamentos de análise, a uma ampliação e aprofundamento do elenco inicial de significações, de modo a determinar compreensivos focos orientadores de análise e identificar dimensões fundamentais do esforço explicativo darwiniano (capítulos 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). A exploraçÃo epistemológica conduzida na segunda parte fornece o instrumento analítico que permite retomar a colocação inicial da função e sentido de PSN em suas relações com o conceito de Natureza, projetando a indagação epistemológica no âmbito da especulação metafísica. Essa dupla dimensão de PSN pode então ser focalizada, tratando-se agora da articulação do epistemológico e do metafísico, presente na natureza explicativa de PSN - e o fazendo enquanto PSN exibe uma natureza teleológica (III Parte). Cabe, inicialmente, estabelecer, face ao exame realizado na segunda parte, os alcances e limites dos níveis e padrões explicativos e das estratégias argumentativas darwinianas, mostrando sua "novidade" e seu caráter multifacético (capítulo 10), a fim de compreender o escopo explicativo de PSN. Esse escopo, por sua vez, cabe vê-lo concretizado em sua função explicativa, através da reconstrução de argumentos-chave da Origem e representativos de seus diferentes níveis explicativos (capítulo 11). Assim visto, o poder explicativo de PSN pode ser compreendido como sendo estabelecido em duas grandes e mutuamente remissivas etapas: em sua fundamentação, como um princípio da Natureza, e em sua justificação, pelo seu poder explicativo operando em diferentes níveis e assim viabilizando empiricamente a visão de Natureza que lhe serve de fundamento (capítulo 12). Desse modo, a dimensão epistemológica de PSN, tornando o que ocorre na Natureza inteligível como objeto de conhecimento, operacionaliza a dimensão metafísica, ou seja, a visão do próprio "ser" da Natureza que lhe serve de fundamento - PSN é a Natureza no exercício de seu poder, é a Natureza (concebida como sistema que recebe suas cores em termos de "luta pela existência") atualizada. Em ambas dimensões explicativas, PSN exibe uma natureza teleológica, enquanto dá lugar a explicações telelógicas e apresenta-se como princípio teleologicamente fundado, abrindo o caminho a um novo enfoque da questão teleológica, redimensionando o tratamento de muitas das ambiguidades encontradas na problematização contemporânea dessa questão.