A process evaluation of the childhood lead poisoning prevention program in Houston, Texas, 1992--1995

A process evaluation of the Houston Childhood Lead Poisoning Prevention Program, 1992-1995, was conducted. The Program's goal is to reduce lead poisoning prevalence. The study proposed to determine to what extent the Program was implemented as planned by measuring how well Program services were actually: (1) received by the intended target population; (2) delivered to children with elevated blood lead levels; (3) delivered in compliance with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Program guidelines and timetables; and (4) able to reduce lead poisoning prevalence among those rescreened. Utilizing a program monitoring design, the Program's pre-collected computer records were reviewed. The study sample consisted of 820 children whose blood lead levels were above 15 micrograms per deciLiter, representing approximately 2.9% of the 28,406 screened over this period. Three blood lead levels from each participant were examined: the initial elevated result; the confirmatory result; and the next rescreen result, after the elevated confirmatory level. Results showed that the Program screened approximately 18% (28,406 of 161,569) of Houston's children under age 6 years for lead poisoning. Based on Chi-square tests of significance, results also showed that lead-poisoned participants were more likely to be younger than 3 years, male and Hispanic, compared to those not lead poisoned. The age, gender and ethnic differences observed were statistically significant (p =.01, p =.00, p =.00). Four of the six Program services: medical evaluations, rescreening, environmental inspections and confirmation, had satisfactory delivery completion rates of 71%-98%. Delivery timetable compliance rates for three of the six services examined: outreach contacts, home visits and environmental inspections were below 32%. However, dangerously elevated blood lead levels fell and lead poisoning prevalence dropped from 3.3% at initial screening to 1.2% among those rescreened, after intervention. From a public health perspective, reductions in lead poisoning prevalence are very meaningful. Based on these findings, the following are recommendations for future research: (1) integrate Program database files by utilizing a computer database management program; (2) target services at Hispanic male children under age 3 years living in the highest risk neighborhoods; (3) increase resources to: improve tracking and documentation of service delivery and provide more non-medical case management and environmental services; and (4) share the evaluation methodology/findings with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention administrators; the implications may be relevant to other program managers conducting such assessments. ^

Local environmental knowledge: a key input for the sustainable development of Andean mountain communities

Local knowledge is crucial to both human development and environmental conservation. This is especially the case in mountain regions, where a combination of remoteness, harsh climatic conditions, rich cultural heritage, and high biological diversity has led to the development of complex local environmental knowledge systems. In the Andes for instance, rural populations mainly rely on their own environmental knowledge to ensure their food security and health. Recent studies conducted within Quechua communities in Peru and Bolivia showed that this knowledge was both persistent and dynamic, and that it responded to socio-economic and environmental changes through cultural resistance and adaptation. As this paper argues, combining local knowledge and so-called scientific knowledge – especially in development projects – can lead to innovative solutions to the socio-environmental challenges facing mountain communities in our globalized world. Based on experiences from the Andes, this paper will provide concrete recommendations to policymakers and practitioners for integrating local knowledge into development and natural resource management initiatives.

Assessing perceptions of environmental risk and environmental justice and their impacts on neighborhood attachment in a predominately Hispanic community

This study examines and relates concepts from environmental risk perception and environmental justice and focuses on the perception of environmental problems, their consequent health risks and their impact on neighborhood attachment in a predominately Hispanic community along the U.S.-Mexico border. The findings indicate that the perception of environmental problems in the immediate area varies by problem and demographic subgroup. Ethnicity and income have the highest number of statistically significant associations across ten environmental problems. This result lies in the fact that Hispanics in El Paso County and those with low annual incomes live in neighborhoods that are faced with more severe environmental problems. Thus the findings lend support to the environmental justice claim that the poor and minorities bear the brunt of environmental degradation. ^ The findings also provide evidence that public perception of health risks from an environmental problem is influenced by the perceived severity of an environmental problem in the immediate area. Those who believe the problem is serious on a local level are the ones who are most likely to believe that they could become ill or injured from that problem and that the illness/injury will be serious. ^ The findings of this study also indicate that the young, Hispanics, those who perceive considerable environmental problems in their neighborhood, those who believe that their neighborhood has more environmental problems than others, and those who are angry about those problems are most likely to want to move from their neighborhood. ^ Efforts need to be made to enact policies and programs designed to reduce the environmental hazards in disadvantaged Hispanic communities along the U.S.-Mexico border. Future environmental education campaigns need to complement community-based projects with the media. Programs that involve and empower the community, particularly the youth, in improving the neighborhood could provide a sense of control and pride within their community in solving these problems. These neighborhood improvement efforts could also lead to the development and strengthening of social ties within the community, as well as enhanced community cohesiveness in tackling these problems. ^

Secondary data analysis of lead screening compliance in high-risk children

Introduction. Despite the ban of lead-containing gasoline and paint, childhood lead poisoning remains a public health issue. Furthermore, a Medicaid-eligible child is 8 times more likely to have an elevated blood lead level (EBLL) than a non-Medicaid child, which is the primary reason for the early detection lead screening mandate for ages 12 and 24 months among the Medicaid population. Based on field observations, there was evidence that suggested a screening compliance issue. Objective. The purpose of this study was to analyze blood lead screening compliance in previously lead poisoned Medicaid children and test for an association between timely lead screening and timely childhood immunizations. The mean months between follow-up tests were also examined for a significant difference between the non-compliant and compliant lead screened children. Methods. Access to the surveillance data of all childhood lead poisoned cases in Bexar County was granted by the San Antonio Metropolitan Health District. A database was constructed and analyzed using descriptive statistics, logistic regression methods and non-parametric tests. Lead screening at 12 months of age was analyzed separately from lead screening at 24 months. The small portion of the population who were also related were included in one analysis and removed from a second analysis to check for significance. Gender, ethnicity, age of home, and having a sibling with an EBLL were ruled out as confounders for the association tests but ethnicity and age of home were adjusted in the nonparametric tests. Results. There was a strong significant association between lead screening compliance at 12 months and childhood immunization compliance, with or without including related children (p<0.00). However, there was no significant association between the two variables at the age of 24 months. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between the median of the mean months of follow-up blood tests among the non-compliant and compliant lead screened population for at the 12 month screening group but there was a significant difference at the 24 month screening group (p<0.01). Discussion. Descriptive statistics showed that 61% and 56% of the previously lead poisoned Medicaid population did not receive their 12 and 24 month mandated lead screening on time, respectively. This suggests that their elevated blood lead level may have been diagnosed earlier in their childhood. Furthermore, a child who is compliant with their lead screening at 12 months of age is 2.36 times more likely to also receive their childhood immunizations on time compared to a child who was not compliant with their 12 month screening. Even though there was no statistical significant association found for the 24 month group, the public health significance of a screening compliance issue is no less important. The Texas Medicaid program needs to enforce lead screening compliance because it is evident that there has been no monitoring system in place. Further recommendations include a need for an increased focus on parental education and the importance of taking their children for wellness exams on time.^

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms and lead exposure in children: A systematic review of literature

Blood lead levels > 10 µg/dL are known to affect various areas of the brain that influence behavior and cause many other health problems in children. As a result, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) set the blood lead action level at 10 µg/dL. However, recent research provides evidence that blood lead levels <10 µg/dL also may lead to behavioral problems in children. With the recent increase in diagnosis of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children in the U.S. it is important to determine possible environmental toxins such as lead that may play a role in causing ADHD symptoms. The aim of this systematic review of the literature was to identify recent published studies that examine an association between blood lead levels < 10 µg/dL and ADHD symptoms in children in order to summarize their findings and describe major gaps in the literature. Although available research is limited, the articles reviewed indicate that blood lead at levels much below the CDC action level of 10 µg/dL may affect a child's level of attention, hyperactivity, impulsivity and ADHD diagnosis. Additional prospective research is warranted in order to inform the revision of current blood lead action levels as well as better elucidate the relationship between lead and ADHD diagnoses.^

Sedimentology and Lead and Strontium isotope ratios of Miocene sediments from the Kerguelen Plateau

Characterization of sediment from Ocean Drilling Program Site 745, representing the East Kerguelen Ridge sediment drift, addresses important issues surrounding the timing of Miocene to present East Antarctic ice sheet stability and oceanic environmental change. Our results show three periods of greatly enhanced accumulation of Antarctic-derived sediment, at 6.4-5.9 Ma, 4.9-4.4 Ma and 1.1-0.8 Ma, potentially indicative of warmer, less stable ice sheets at these times. Conversely, the accumulation of Antarctic-derived material is comparatively less during the middle of the Pliocene warm epoch (4.8-3.2 Ma). The deep flow forming the Kerguelen drift was stronger during the latest Miocene and earliest Pliocene and has decreased in intensity continuously since then.

Lead isotopic ratios of Barremian-Aptian marine sediments

We present initial isotopic ratios of lead for Early Cretaceous (Barremian-Aptian) sections from Shatsky Rise (Pacific) and Gorgo a Cerbara (Italy). Our Pb isotopic data track an interval representing Oceanic Anoxic Event (OAE)-1a, which is characterized by quasi-global deposition of organic carbon-rich black shale. Pb isotopic compositions of sediments from Shatsky Rise decrease at the end of Barremian time, from radiogenic continental values to unradiogenic values, and subsequently remained less radiogenic until the end of early Aptian time. We explain the isotopic shift by a significant increase in supply rate of unradiogenic Pb, most likely due to massive volcanism. In contrast, the Pb isotopic compositions from the Italian section, which was situated at the western end of Tethys, are mostly identical to those of upper continental crust, showing no significant change in supply rate of unradiogenic Pb. The discrepancy between two sites is attributed to quiescent deep-submarine eruptions of Pacific large igneous provinces (LIPs) such as the Ontong Java Plateau (OJP), which severely limited dispersion of Pb-carrying particles out of the Pacific Ocean. Published Os isotopic data from the Italian section indicate two episodes of massive eruptions of OJP or contemporaneous Manihiki and Hikurangi plateaus starting from earliest Aptian time, slightly later than that indicated by the sedimentary Pb isotopic record from Shatsky Rise. Differences in isotopic variations between Pb and Os likely reflect differences in their chemical behaviors in the oceans, i.e., Pb isotopic compositions would have varied in response to local or regional changes in sediment provenances, whereas large-scale changes in Os inputs are required to explain variations in seawater Os isotopic compositions. Our Pb isotopic data, together with the published Os isotopic record, provide new evidence for the eruptive history of OJP together with contemporaneous Pacific plateaus and its environmental consequences, starting from end-Barremian time and extending through early Aptian time.

Lead 210 concentrations in sediments of the Arabian Sea

In order to evaluate bioturbation in abyssal Arabian-Sea sediments of the Indus fan profiles of 210Pb (half-life: 22.3 yr) and 234Th (half-life: 24.1 d) were measured in cores collected during September and October 1995 and April 1997, respectively. The density and composition of epibenthic megafauna and lebensspuren were determined in vertical seafloor photographs during April 1997. Mean eddy-diffusive mixing coefficients according to the distribution of excess 210Pb ( 210Pb-DB) were 0.072±0.028, 0.068±0.055, 0.373±0.119, 0.037±0.009 and 0.079±0.119 cm**2 yr**-1 in the northern, western, central, eastern and southern abyssal Arabian sea, respectively. Mean eddy-diffusive mixing coefficients according to the distribution of excess 234Th (234Th-DB) were 0.53, 1.64 and 0.47 cm**2 yr**-1 in the northern, western and central abyssal Arabian Sea, respectively. Mobile epibenthic megafauna at the western, northern, central and southern study sites were dominated by ophiuroids, holothurians, ophiuroids and natant decapods (the respective densities were 100, 82, 29 and 6 individuals 1000 m**-2). The northern study site was characterized by a high abundance of spoke traces and fecal casts. The central site showed spoke traces and many tracks. The southern site displayed the highest abundance of spoke traces, whereas at the western site hardly any lebensspuren were observed. There is evidence for at least two functional endmember communities in the Arabian Sea. In the northwestern Arabian Sea (WAST) vertical particle displacement seems to be dominated by macrofauna and primarily eddy-diffusive. In the southern Arabian Sea (SAST) non-local and 'incidental' mixing due to spoke-trace producers might become more important and superimpose reduced eddy-diffusive mixing. With respect to biological data CAST is an intermediate location. Given the biological data, average 210Pb-DB is higher and decimeter-scale variability of 210Pb-DB smaller at CAST than expected. These findings indicate that in a mixture of both endmember communities the organisms may interact in way that increases values of biodiffusivity, as reflected by 210Pb-DB, and reduces decimeter-scale 210Pb-DB heterogeneity in comparison to the simple sum of the isolated effects of the endmembers. For time scales <100 years there was no evidence for a relationship between food supply (POC flux) and bioturbation intensity, as reflected by 210Pb-DB and 234Th-DB. Bioturbation intensity should be controlled primarily by the composition of the benthic fauna, its specific adaptation to the environmental setting, and the abundance of each species of the benthic community. Food supply can have only an indirect influence on bioturbation intensity. In certain parts of the ocean the a priori overall positive relationship between POC flux and biodiffusivity might include restricted intervals displaying no or even negative relations.

Performance data of the coral Pocillopora verrucosa and environmental conditions along the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast as assessed during 3 expeditions in the years 2011 and 2012

Large scale patterns of ecologically relevant traits may help identify drivers of their variability and conditions beneficial or adverse to the expression of these traits. Antimicrofouling defenses in scleractinian corals regulate the establishment of the associated biofilm as well as the risks of infection. The Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast features a pronounced thermal and nutritional gradient including regions and seasons with potentially stressful conditions to corals. Assessing the patterns of antimicrofouling defenses across the Red Sea may hint at the susceptibility of corals to global change. We investigated microfouling pressure as well as the relative strength of 2 alternative antimicrofouling defenses (chemical antisettlement activity, mucus release) along the pronounced environmental gradient along the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast in 2 successive years. Microfouling pressure was exceptionally low along most of the coast but sharply increased at the southernmost sites. Mucus release correlated with temperature. Chemical defense tended to anti-correlate with mucus release. As a result, the combined action of mucus release and chemical antimicrofouling defense seemed to warrant sufficient defense against microbes along the entire coast. In the future, however, we expect enhanced energetic strain on corals when warming and/or eutrophication lead to higher bacterial fouling pressure and a shift towards putatively more costly defense by mucus release.

Role of supply chains in adopting product related environmental regulations : case studies of Vietnam

This paper shows some findings how product related environmental regulations, especially those that relate to management of chemical substances affect firms in Asia. Interviews were conducted for some firms in Vietnam that are part of global supply chains of electrical and electronic, furniture, and plastic industries. The global supply chains with MNC lead firms have helped local firms in developing countries to adopt technical PRERs overseas. On the other hand, indigenous firms that do not belong to global value chains might face hurdles to keep exporting to the regulated markets. PRERs could become a barrier for firms that attempt to the regulated markets without supports by MNC lead firms.

Environmental consciousness, economic gain and consumer choice of energy efficient appliances in Thailand, China and India

In developing economies, consumption of electricity in residential and commercial sectors increased with economic development. In order to identify the factors for effective facilitation of standard and labeling programs, this article explores factors that affect consumer choice to energy-efficient products. Main findings are as follows: (1)Consumers in Thailand shows the highest awareness to environmental friendly concepts, followed by India and China.(2) Chosen labeled products include air-conditioners, TVs, refrigerators and washing machines, but not some popular products such as ceiling fans, electric fans or mobile phones. (3) Consumer who has higher energy conservation perception will buy energy efficient products.(4) Consumers in China, India and Thailand are sensitive to energy efficiency of products, primarily because they lead to less expenditure on electricity. (5) Labeling works to make levels of the energy efficiency of products more visible and thus helped consumers to choose the products.

Methodology to assess economic and environmental impacts of nitrogen in fertirrigation systems.

To determine the risk of nitrate pollution in agricultural systems have identified several indexes and efficiencies that may lead an effective N fertilizer management for obtain the maximum yield with minimum environmental impact and health

Estudios de especiación de arsénico y acumulación de metales en muestras de interés medioambiental : Arsenic speciation and metal accumulation studies in environmental samples

Se ha estudiado la determinación de especies de arsénico y de contenidos totales de arsénico y metales pesados, específicamente cadmio, cromo, cobre, níquel, plomo y cinc, en muestras de interés medioambiental por su elevada capacidad acumuladora de metales, concretamente algas marinas comestibles y plantas terrestres procedentes de suelos contaminados por la actividad minera. La determinación de contenidos totales se ha llevado a cabo mediante espectrometría de emisión atómica con plasma de acoplamiento inductivo (ICP‐AES), así como por espectrometría de fluorescencia atómica con generación de hidruros (HG‐AFS), para bajos contenidos de arsénico. Las muestras fueron mineralizadas en medio ácido y calentamiento en horno de microondas. Los métodos fueron validados a través de su aplicación a materiales de referencia de matriz similar a la de las muestras, certificados en contenidos totales de los elementos seleccionados. Los resultados obtenidos mostraron su elevada capacidad de bioabsorción, especialmente en relación a los elevados contenidos de arsénico encontrados en algunas especies de algas pardas (Phaeophytas). En las plantas, se calcularon los factores de translocación, acumulación y biodisponibilidad de los elementos estudiados, permitiendo identificar a la especie Corrigiola telephiifolia como posible acumuladora de plomo e hiperacumuladora de arsénico. La determinación de especies de arsénico hidrosolubles en las muestras objeto de estudio, se llevó a cabo por cromatografía líquida de alta eficacia (HPLC) acoplado a ICP‐AES, HG‐ICP‐AES y HG‐AFS, incluyendo una etapa previa de foto‐oxidación. Los métodos desarrollados, mediante intercambio aniónico y catiónico, permitieron la diferenciación de hasta once especies de arsénico. Para el análisis de las muestras, fue necesaria la optimización de métodos de extracción, seleccionándose la extracción asistida por microondas (MAE) con agua desionizada. Asimismo, se realizaron estudios de estabilidad de arsénico total y de las especies hidrosolubles presentes en las algas, tanto sobre la muestra sólida como en sus extractos acuosos, evaluando las condiciones de almacenamiento adecuadas. En el caso de las plantas, la aplicación del diseño factorial de experimentos permitió optimizar el método de extracción y diferenciar entre las especies de arsénico presentes en forma de iones sencillos de mayor movilidad y el arsénico más fuertemente enlazado a componentes estructurales. Los resultados obtenidos permitieron identificar la presencia de arseniato (As(V)) y arsenito (As(III)) en las plantas, así como de ácido monometilarsónico (MMA) y óxido de trimetilarsina (TMAO) en algunas especies. En la mayoría de las algas se encontraron especies tóxicas, tanto mayoritarias (arseniato) como minoritarias (ácido dimetilarsínico (DMA)), así como hasta cuatro arsenoazúcares. Los resultados obtenidos y su estudio a través de la legislación vigente, mostraron la necesidad de desarrollar una reglamentación específica para el control de este tipo de alimentos. La determinación de especies de arsénico liposolubles en las muestras de algas se llevó a cabo mediante HPLC, en modo fase inversa, acoplado a espectrometría de masas con plasma de acoplamiento inductivo (ICP‐MS) y con ionización por electrospray (ESI‐MS), permitiendo la elucidación estructural de estos compuestos a través de la determinación de sus masas moleculares. Para ello, fue necesaria la puesta a punto de métodos extracción y purificación de los extractos. La metodología desarrollada permitió identificar hasta catorce especies de arsénico liposolubles en las algas, tres de ellas correspondientes a hidrocarburos que contienen arsénico, y once a arsenofosfolípidos, además de dos especies desconocidas. Las masas moleculares de las especies identificadas fueron confirmadas mediante cromatografía de gases acoplada a espectrometría de masas (GC‐MS) y espectrometría de masas de alta resolución (HR‐MS). ABSTRACT The determination of arsenic species and total arsenic and heavy metal contents (cadmium, chromium, cooper, nickel, lead and zinc) in environmental samples, with high metal accumulator capacity, has been studied. The samples studied were edible marine algae and terrestrial plants from soils polluted by mining activities. The determination of total element contents was performed by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP‐AES), as well as by hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry (HG‐AFS) for low arsenic contents. The samples studied were digested in an acidic medium by heating in a microwave oven. The digestion methods were validated against reference materials, with matrix similar to sample matrix and certified in total contents of the elements studied. The results showed the high biosorption capacity of the samples studied, especially regarding the high arsenic contents in some species of brown algae (Phaeophyta division). In terrestrial plants, the translocation, accumulation and bioavailability factors of the elements studied were calculated. Thus, the plant species Corrigiola telephiifolia was identified as possible lead accumulator and arsenic hyperaccumulator. The determination of water‐soluble arsenic species in the samples studied was carried out by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled to ICP‐AES, HG‐ICP‐AES and HG‐AFS, including a prior photo‐oxidation step. The chromatographic methods developed, by anion and cation exchange, allowed us to differentiate up to eleven arsenic species. The sample analysis required the optimization of extraction methods, choosing the microwave assisted extraction (MAE) with deionized water. On the other hand, the stability of total arsenic and water‐soluble arsenic species in algae, both in the solid samples and in the water extracts, was studied, assessing the suitable storage conditions. In the case of plant samples, the application of a multivariate experimental design allowed us to optimize the extraction method and differentiate between the arsenic species present as simple ions of higher mobility and the arsenic more strongly bound to structural components. The presence of arsenite (As(III)) and arsenate (As(V)) was identified in plant samples, as well as monomethylarsonic acid (MMA) and trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO) in some cases. Regarding algae, toxic arsenic species were found in most of them, both As(V) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), as well as up to four arsenosugars. These results were discussed according to the current legislation, showing the need to develop specific regulations to control this kind of food products. The determination of lipid‐soluble arsenic species in alga samples was performed by reversed‐phase HPLC coupled to inductively coupled plasma and electrospray mass spectrometry (ICP‐MS and ESI‐MS), in order to establish the structure of these compounds by determining the corresponding molecular masses. For this purpose, it was necessary to develop an extraction method, as well as a clean‐up method of the extracts. The method developed permitted the identification of fourteen lipid‐soluble arsenic compounds in algae, corresponding to three arsenic‐hydrocarbons and eleven arsenosugarphospholipids, as well as two unknown compounds. Accurate mass measurements of the identified compounds were performed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC‐MS) and high resolution mass spectrometry (HR‐MS).