Hyperspectral field measurements to determine dry matter yield and nutritive value of legume-grass swards

Summary: Productivity, botanical composition and forage quality of legume-grass swards are important factors for successful arable farming in both organic and conventional farming systems. As these attributes can vary considerably within a field, a non-destructive method of detection while doing other tasks would facilitate a more targeted management of crops, forage and nutrients in the soil-plant-animal system. This study was undertaken to explore the potential of field spectral measurements for a non destructive prediction of dry matter (DM) yield, legume proportion in the sward, metabolizable energy (ME), ash content, crude protein (CP) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) of legume-grass mixtures. Two experiments were conducted in a greenhouse under controlled conditions which allowed collecting spectral measurements which were free from interferences such as wind, passing clouds and changing angles of solar irradiation. In a second step this initial investigation was evaluated in the field by a two year experiment with the same legume-grass swards. Several techniques for analysis of the hyperspectral data set were examined in this study: four vegetation indices (VIs): simple ratio (SR), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), enhanced vegetation index (EVI) and red edge position (REP), two-waveband reflectance ratios, modified partial least squares (MPLS) regression and stepwise multiple linear regression (SMLR). The results showed the potential of field spectroscopy and proved its usefulness for the prediction of DM yield, ash content and CP across a wide range of legume proportion and growth stage. In all investigations prediction accuracy of DM yield, ash content and CP could be improved by legume-specific calibrations which included mixtures and pure swards of perennial ryegrass and of the respective legume species. The comparison between the greenhouse and the field experiments showed that the interaction between spectral reflectance and weather conditions as well as incidence angle of light interfered with an accurate determination of DM yield. Further research is hence needed to improve the validity of spectral measurements in the field. Furthermore, the developed models should be tested on varying sites and vegetation periods to enhance the robustness and portability of the models to other environmental conditions.

Determination of yield and quality parameters of energy crops applying laboratory and field spectroscopy

A real-time analysis of renewable energy sources, such as arable crops, is of great importance with regard to an optimised process management, since aspects of ecology and biodiversity are considered in crop production in order to provide a sustainable energy supply by biomass. This study was undertaken to explore the potential of spectroscopic measurement procedures for the prediction of potassium (K), chloride (Cl), and phosphate (P), of dry matter (DM) yield, metabolisable energy (ME), ash and crude fibre contents (ash, CF), crude lipid (EE), nitrate free extracts (NfE) as well as of crude protein (CP) and nitrogen (N), respectively in pretreated samples and undisturbed crops. Three experiments were conducted, one in a laboratory using near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) and two field spectroscopic experiments. Laboratory NIRS measurements were conducted to evaluate to what extent a prediction of quality parameters is possible examining press cakes characterised by a wide heterogeneity of their parent material. 210 samples were analysed subsequent to a mechanical dehydration using a screw press. Press cakes serve as solid fuel for thermal conversion. Field spectroscopic measurements were carried out with regard to further technical development using different field grown crops. A one year lasting experiment over a binary mixture of grass and red clover examined the impact of different degrees of sky cover on prediction accuracies of distinct plant parameters. Furthermore, an artificial light source was used in order to evaluate to what extent such a light source is able to minimise cloud effects on prediction accuracies. A three years lasting experiment with maize was conducted in order to evaluate the potential of off-nadir measurements inside a canopy to predict different quality parameters in total biomass and DM yield using one sensor for a potential on-the-go application. This approach implements a measurement of the plants in 50 cm segments, since a sensor adjusted sideways is not able to record the entire plant height. Calibration results obtained by nadir top-of-canopy reflectance measurements were compared to calibration results obtained by off-nadir measurements. Results of all experiments approve the applicability of spectroscopic measurements for the prediction of distinct biophysical and biochemical parameters in the laboratory and under field conditions, respectively. The estimation of parameters could be conducted to a great extent with high accuracy. An enhanced basis of calibration for the laboratory study and the first field experiment (grass/clover-mixture) yields in improved robustness of calibration models and allows for an extended application of spectroscopic measurement techniques, even under varying conditions. Furthermore, off-nadir measurements inside a canopy yield in higher prediction accuracies, particularly for crops characterised by distinct height increment as observed for maize.

Impact of sward type, cutting date and conditioning temperature on mass and energy flows in the integrated generation of solid fuel and biogas from semi-natural grassland

Energy production from biomass and the conservation of ecologically valuable grassland habitats are two important issues of agriculture today. The combination of a bioenergy production, which minimises environmental impacts and competition with food production for land with a conversion of semi-natural grasslands through new utilization alternatives for the biomass, led to the development of the IFBB process. Its basic principle is the separation of biomass into a liquid fraction (press fluid, PF) for the production of electric and thermal energy after anaerobic digestion to biogas and a solid fraction (press cake, PC) for the production of thermal energy through combustion. This study was undertaken to explore mass and energy flows as well as quality aspects of energy carriers within the IFBB process and determine their dependency on biomass-related and technical parameters. Two experiments were conducted, in which biomass from semi-natural grassland was conserved as silage and subjected to a hydrothermal conditioning and a subsequent mechanical dehydration with a screw press. Methane yield of the PF and the untreated silage was determined in anaerobic digestion experiments in batch fermenters at 37°C with a fermentation time of 13-15 and 27-35 days for the PF and the silage, respectively. Concentrations of dry matter (DM), ash, crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE), neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), acid detergent ligning (ADL) and elements (K, Mg, Ca, Cl, N, S, P, C, H, N) were determined in the untreated biomass and the PC. Higher heating value (HHV) and ash softening temperature (AST) were calculated based on elemental concentration. Chemical composition of the PF and mass flows of all plant compounds into the PF were calculated. In the first experiment, biomass from five different semi-natural grassland swards (Arrhenaterion I and II, Caricion fuscae, Filipendulion ulmariae, Polygono-Trisetion) was harvested at one late sampling (19 July or 31 August) and ensiled. Each silage was subjected to three different temperature treatments (5°C, 60°C, 80°C) during hydrothermal conditioning. Based on observed methane yields and HHV as energy output parameters as well as literature-based and observed energy input parameters, energy and green house gas (GHG) balances were calculated for IFBB and two reference conversion processes, whole-crop digestion of untreated silage (WCD) and combustion of hay (CH). In the second experiment, biomass from one single semi-natural grassland sward (Arrhenaterion) was harvested at eight consecutive dates (27/04, 02/05, 09/05, 16/05, 24/05, 31/05, 11/06, 21/06) and ensiled. Each silage was subjected to six different treatments (no hydrothermal conditioning and hydrothermal conditioning at 10°C, 30°C, 50°C, 70°C, 90°C). Energy balance was calculated for IFBB and WCD. Multiple regression models were developed to predict mass flows, concentrations of elements in the PC, concentration of organic compounds in the PF and energy conversion efficiency of the IFBB process from temperature of hydrothermal conditioning as well as NDF and DM concentration in the silage. Results showed a relative reduction of ash and all elements detrimental for combustion in the PC compared to the untreated biomass of 20-90%. Reduction was highest for K and Cl and lowest for N. HHV of PC and untreated biomass were in a comparable range (17.8-19.5 MJ kg-1 DM), but AST of PC was higher (1156-1254°C). Methane yields of PF were higher compared to those of WCD when the biomass was harvested late (end of May and later) and in a comparable range when the biomass was harvested early and ranged from 332 to 458 LN kg-1 VS. Regarding energy and GHG balances, IFBB, with a net energy yield of 11.9-14.1 MWh ha-1, a conversion efficiency of 0.43-0.51, and GHG mitigation of 3.6-4.4 t CO2eq ha-1, performed better than WCD, but worse than CH. WCD produces thermal and electric energy with low efficiency, CH produces only thermal energy with a low quality solid fuel with high efficiency, IFBB produces thermal and electric energy with a solid fuel of high quality with medium efficiency. Regression models were able to predict target parameters with high accuracy (R2=0.70-0.99). The influence of increasing temperature of hydrothermal conditioning was an increase of mass flows, a decrease of element concentrations in the PC and a differing effect on energy conversion efficiency. The influence of increasing NDF concentration of the silage was a differing effect on mass flows, a decrease of element concentrations in the PC and an increase of energy conversion efficiency. The influence of increasing DM concentration of the silage was a decrease of mass flows, an increase of element concentrations in the PC and an increase of energy conversion efficiency. Based on the models an optimised IFBB process would be obtained with a medium temperature of hydrothermal conditioning (50°C), high NDF concentrations in the silage and medium DM concentrations of the silage.

The role of ligneous vegetation for livestock nutrition in the sub-Sahelian and Sudanian zones of West Africa: Potential effects of climate change

Climate change and variability in sub-Saharan West Africa is expected to have negative consequences for crop and livestock farming due to the strong dependence of these sectors on rainfall and natural resources, and the low adaptive capacity of crops farmers, agro-pastoralist and pastoralists in the region. The objective of this PhD research was to investigate the anticipated impacts of expected future climate change and variability on nutrition and grazing management of livestock in the prevailing extensive agro-pastoral and pastoral systems of the Sahelian and Sudanian zones of Burkina Faso. To achieve this, three studies were undertaken in selected village territories (100 km² each) in the southern Sahelian (Taffogo), northern Sudanian (Nobere, Safane) and southern Sudanian (Sokouraba) zone of the country during 2009 and 2010. The choice of two villages in the northern Sudanian zone was guided by the dichotomy between intense agricultural land use and high population density near Safane, and lower agricultural land use in the tampon zone between the village of Nobere and the National Park Kaboré Tambi of Pô. Using global positioning and geographical information systems tools, the spatio-temporal variation in the use of grazing areas by cattle, sheep and goats, and in their foraging behaviour in the four villages was assessed by monitoring three herds each per species during a one-year cycle (Chapter 2). Maximum itinerary lengths (km/d) were observed in the hot dry season (March-May); they were longer for sheep (18.8) and cattle (17.4) than for goats (10.5, p<0.05). Daily total grazing time spent on pasture ranged from 6 - 11 h with cattle staying longer on pasture than small ruminants (p<0.05). Feeding time accounted for 52% - 72% of daily time on pasture, irrespective of species. Herds spent longer time on pasture and walked farther distances in the southern Sahelian than the two Sudanian zones (p<0.01), while daily feeding time was longer in the southern Sudanian than in the other two zones (p>0.05). Proportional time spent resting decreased from the rainy (June - October) to the cool (November - February) and hot dry season (p<0.05), while in parallel the proportion of walking time increased. Feeding time of all species was to a significantly high proportion spent on wooded land (tree crown cover 5-10%, or shrub cover >10%) in the southern Sahelian zone, and on forest land (tree crown cover >10%) in the two Sudanian zones, irrespective of season. It is concluded that with the expansion of cropland in the whole region, remaining islands of wooded land, including also fields fallowed for three or more years with their considerable shrub cover, are particularly valuable pasturing areas for ruminant stock. Measures must be taken that counteract the shrinking of wooded land and forests across the whole region, including also active protection and (re)establishment of drought-tolerant fodder trees. Observation of the selection behaviour of the above herds of cattle and small ruminant as far as browse species were concerned, and interviews with 75 of Fulani livestock keepers on use of browse as feed by their ruminant stock and as remedies for animal disease treatment was undertaken (Chapter 3) in order to evaluate the consequence of climate change for the contribution of browse to livestock nutrition and animal health in the extensive grazing-based livestock systems. The results indicated that grazing cattle and small ruminants do make considerable use of browse species on pasture across the studied agro-ecological zones. Goats spent more time (p<0.01) feeding on browse species than sheep and cattle, which spent a low to moderate proportion of their feeding time on browsing in any of the study sites. As far as the agro-ecological zones were concerned, the contribution of browse species to livestock nutrition was more important in the southern Sahelian and northern Sudanian zone than the southern Sudanian zone, and this contribution is higher during the cold and hot dry season than during the rainy season. A total of 75 browse species were selected on pasture year around, whereby cattle strongly preferred Afzelia africana, Pterocarpus erinaceus and Piliostigma sp., while sheep and goats primarily fed on Balanites aegyptiaca, Ziziphus mauritiana and Acacia sp. Crude protein concentration (in DM) of pods or fruits of the most important browse species selected by goats, sheep and cattle ranged from 7% to 13% for pods, and from 10% to 18% for foliage. The concentration of digestible organic matter of preferred browse species mostly ranged from 40% to 60%, and the concentrations of total phenols, condensed tannins and acid detergent lignin were low. Linear regression analyses showed that browse preference on pasture is strongly related to its contents (% of DM) of CP, ADF, NDF and OM digestibility. Interviewed livestock keepers reported that browse species are increasingly use by their grazing animals, while for animal health care use of tree- and shrub-based remedies decreased over the last two decades. It is concluded that due to climate change with expected negative impact on the productivity of the herbaceous layer of communal pastures browse fodder will gain in importance for animal nutrition. Therefore re-establishment and dissemination of locally adapted browse species preferred by ruminants is needed to increase the nutritional situation of ruminant stock in the region and contribute to species diversity and soil fertility restoration in degraded pasture areas. In Chapter 4 a combination of household surveys and participatory research approaches was used in the four villages, and additionally in the village of Zogoré (southern Sahelian zone) and of Karangasso Vigué (northern Sudanian zone) to investigate pastoralists’ (n= 76) and agro-pastoralists’ (n= 83) perception of climate change, and their adaptation strategies in crop and livestock production at farm level. Across the three agro-ecological zones, the majority of the interviewees perceived an increase in maximum day temperatures and decrease of total annual rainfall over the last two decades. Perceptions of change in climate patterns were in line with meteorological data for increased temperatures while for total rainfall farmers’ views contrasted the rainfall records which showed a slight increase of precipitation. According to all interviewees climate change and variability have negative impacts on their crop and animal husbandry, and most of them already adopted some coping and adaptation strategies at farm level to secure their livelihoods and reduce negative impacts on their farming system. Although these strategies are valuable and can help crop and livestock farmers to cope with the recurrent droughts and climate variability, they are not effective against expected extreme climate events. Governmental and non-governmental organisations should develop effective policies and strategies at local, regional and national level to support farmers in their endeavours to cope with climate change phenomena; measures should be site-specific and take into account farmers’ experiences and strategies already in place.

Effects of plant diversity on bioenergy parameters in grassland biomass

Extensive grassland biomass for bioenergy production has long been subject of scientific research. The possibility of combining nature conservation goals with a profitable management while reducing competition with food production has created a strong interest in this topic. However, the botanical composition will play a key role for solid fuel quality of grassland biomass and will have effects on the combustion process by potentially causing corrosion, emission and slagging. On the other hand, botanical composition will affect anaerobic digestibility and thereby the biogas potential. In this thesis aboveground biomass from the Jena-Experiment plots was harvested in 2008 and 2009 and analysed for the most relevant chemical constituents effecting fuel quality and anaerobic digestibility. Regarding combustion, the following parameters were of main focus: higher heating value (HHV), gross energy yield (GE), ash content, ash softening temperature (AST), K, Ca, Mg, N, Cl and S content. For biogas production the following parameters were investigated: substrate specific methane yield (CH4 sub), area specific methane yield (CH4 area), crude fibre (CF), crude protein (CP), crude lipid (CL) and nitrogen-free extract (NfE). Furthermore, an improvement of the fuel quality was investigated through applying the Integrated generation of solid Fuel and Biogas from Biomass (IFBB) procedure. Through the specific setup of the Jena-Experiment it was possible to outline the changes of these parameters along two diversity gradients: (i) species richness (SR; 1 to 60 species) and (ii) functional group (grasses, legumes, small herbs and tall herbs) presence. This was a novel approach on investigating the bioenergy characteristic of extensive grassland biomass and gave detailed insight in the sward-composition¬ - bioenergy relations such as: (i) the most relevant SR effect was the increase of energy yield for both combustion (annual GE increased by 26% from SR8→16 and by 65% from SR8→60) and anaerobic digestion (annual CH4 area increased by 22% from SR8→16 and by 49% from SR8→60) through a strong interaction of SR with biomass yield; (ii) legumes play a key role for the utilization of grassland biomass for energy production as they increase the energy content of the substrate (HHV and CH4 sub) and the energy yield (GE and CH4 area); (iii) combustion is the conversion technique that will yield the highest energy output but requires an improvement of the solid fuel quality in order to reduce the risk of corrosion, emission and slagging related problems. This was achieved through applying the IFBB-procedure, with reductions in ash (by 23%), N (28%), K (85%), Cl (56%) and S (59%) and equal levels of concentrations along the SR gradient.

Cassava root peel as a replacement for maize in diets for growing pigs: effects on energy and nutrient digestibility, performance and carcass characteristics

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate cassava root peel (CRP) as diet component for fattening pigs. In the first experiment, ten male pigs were used to investigate the nutrient digestibility and the nutritive value of CRP as replacement for maize in the diet at 0 %, 30 %, 40 %, 50 % and 60 %, while supplementing free amino acids (fAA). During two experimental periods, faeces were quantitatively collected and analysed for chemical composition. In the second experiment, 40 pigs received the same diets as in Experiment 1, and daily feed intake and weekly weight changes were recorded. Four pigs per diet were slaughtered at 70 kg body weight to evaluate carcass traits. Digestibility of dry and organic matter, crude protein, acid detergent fibre and gross energy were depressed (p<0.05) at 60 % CRP; digestible energy content (MJ kg^(−1) DM) was 15.4 at 0 % CRP and 12.7 at 60 % CRP. In the second experiment, CRP inclusion had only a small impact on feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion ratio (p>0.05) as well as on the length of the small intestine and the Longissimus dorsi muscle area. The missing correlation of daily weight gain and feed-to-gain ratio up to a CRP inclusion of 40 % indicates that negative effects of CRP on pig growth can be avoided by respecting upper feeding limits. Hence, a combined use of CRP and fAA can reduce feeding costs for small-scale pig farmers in countries where this crop-by product is available in large amounts.

Carcass composition of Venda indigenous scavenging chickens under village management

Four Venda indigenous scavenging (VIS) chickens (one young male and one young female of 10-16 weeks of age, a mature cockerel and a mature hen) were randomly purchased from each of six adjacent rural villages during three different seasons (autumn, winter and spring) to determine the meat yield and carcass chemical composition. A total of 72 chickens were slaughtered and feathers, head, neck, viscera, feet and lungs were removed. The live body weight, dressed carcass weight and also the mass of the breast without wings, thighs and drumsticks were recorded with bones and skin. The muscle tissues of the breast and both legs without tendons and fat were sampled for chemical analysis and were analysed for dry matter, ether extract, crude protein and ash. The carcass weight, dressing %, mass of the breast, mass of the thighs, mass of the drumsticks, breast yield, thighs yield and drumsticks yield of both grower and adult VIS chickens were not influenced by season. The crude protein of the grower chickens breast muscles and fat content of the adult chicken leg muscles differed with season. The meat from VIS chickens provided a constant nutrient (crude protein) supply throughout the year to the rural communities.

Intake, growth and meat quality of steers given diets based on varying proportions of maize silage and grass silage

Simmental × Holstein-Friesian steers were offered four forage diets. These comprised grass silage (G); proportionately 0·67 grass silage, proportionately 0·33 maize silage (GGM); 0·33 grass silage, 0·67 maize silage ( MMG); maize silage ( M) from 424 (s.d. = 11·5) kg to slaughter at a minimum weight of 560 kg. Forages were mixed and offered ad libitum. Steers were offered 2 kg of a concentrate daily, the concentrate being formulated such that all steers had similar crude protein intakes across dietary treatments. A sample of steers was slaughtered at the beginning of the experimental period to allow the calculation of the rate of gain of the carcass and its components. Carcass dissection of a sample of steers allowed the development of a prediction equation of carcass composition based on thoracic limb dissection of all carcasses. Forage dry matter intake and live-weight gain increased linearly as maize silage replaced grass silage in the forage mixture, resulting in improvements in food conversion ratio (all P = 0·001). Killing-out proportion increased with maize silage inclusion ( P < 0·001) but fat and conformation scores did not differ significantly between diets. However, increasing maize inclusion in the diet resulted in a greater weight ( P = 0·05) and proportion ( P = 0·008) of fat in the carcass, and significant increases in internal fat deposition. The inclusion of maize led to a progressive increase in the daily gains of carcass ( P < 0·001), and significant increases in the daily gains of both fat ( P < 0·001) and lean tissue ( P < 0·001). Fat colour was more yellow in cattle given diets G and GGM than diets MMG and M ( P < 0·001) and colour intensity was lower on diet M than the other three diets ( P < 0·001). There were no significant differences in any aspects of eating quality between diets. Therefore, maize silage has the potential to reduce the time taken for finishing beef animals to achieve slaughter weight with no apparent detrimental effects on subsequent meat quality.

Effects of corn silage derived from a genetically modified variety containing two Transgenes on feed intake, milk production, and composition, and the absence of detectable Transgenic deoxyribonucleic acid in milk in holstein dairy cows

The objectives were to compare the chemical composition, nutritive value, feed intake, milk production and composition, and presence in milk of transgenic DNA and the encoded protein Cry1Ab when corn silages containing 2 transgenes (2GM: herbicide tolerance: mepsps and insect resistance: cry1Ab) were fed as part of a standard total mixed ration (TMR) compared with a near isogenic corn silage ( C) to 8 multiparous lactating Holstein dairy cows in a single reversal design study. Cows were fed a TMR ration ad libitum and milked twice daily. Diets contained [ dry matter (DM) basis] 45% corn silage, 10% alfalfa hay, and 45% concentrate (1.66 Mcal of net energy for lactation/kg of DM, 15.8% crude protein, 35% neutral detergent fiber, and 4.1% fat). Each period was 28-d long. During the last 4 d of each period, feed intake and milk production data were recorded and milk samples taken for compositional analysis, including the presence of transgenic DNA and Cry1Ab protein. There was no significant difference in the chemical composition between C and 2GM silages, and both were within the expected range (37.6% DM, 1.51 Mcal of net energy for lactation/kg, 8.6% crude protein, 40% neutral detergent fiber, 19.6% acid detergent fiber, pH 3.76, and 62% in vitro DM digestibility). Cows fed the 2GM silage produced milk with slightly higher protein (3.09 vs. 3.00%), lactose ( 4.83 vs. 4.72%) and solids-not-fat (8.60 vs. 8.40%) compared with C. However, the yield (kg/d) of milk (36.5), 3.5% fat-corrected milk (34.4), fat (1.151), protein (1.106), lactose (1.738), and solids-not-fat ( 3.094), somatic cell count (log(10): 2.11), change in body weight (+ 7.8 kg), and condition score (+ 0.09) were not affected by type of silage, indicating no overall production difference. All milk samples were negative for the presence of transgenic DNA from either trait or the Cry1Ab protein. Results indicate that the 2GM silage modified with 2 transgenes did not affect nutrient composition of the silages and had no effect on animal performance and milk composition. No transgenic DNA and Cry1Ab protein were detected in milk.

Whole crop cereals 2. Prediction of apparent digestibility and energy value from in vitro digestion techniques and near infrared reflectance spectroscopy and of chemical composition by near infrared reflectance spectroscopy

Samples of whole crop wheat (WCW, n = 134) and whole crop barley (WCB, n = 16) were collected from commercial farms in the UK over a 2-year period (2003/2004 and 2004/2005). Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) was compared with laboratory and in vitro digestibility measures to predict digestible organic matter in the dry matter (DOMD) and metabolisable energy (ME) contents measured in vivo using sheep. Spectral models using the mean spectra of two scans were compared with those using individual spectra (duplicate spectra). Overall NIRS accurately predicted the concentration of chemical components in whole crop cereals apart from crude protein. ammonia-nitrogen, water-soluble carbohydrates, fermentation acids and solubility values. In addition. the spectral models had higher prediction power for in vivo DOMD and ME than chemical components or in vitro digestion methods. Overall there Was a benefit from the use of duplicate spectra rather than mean spectra and this was especially so for predicting in vivo DOMD and ME where the sample population size was smaller. The spectral models derived deal equally well with WCW and WCB and Would he of considerable practical value allowing rapid determination of nutritive value of these forages before their use in diets of productive animals. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Effect of variety, nitrogen fertiliser and various agronomic factors on the nutritive value of husked and naked oats grain

The effect of variety, agronomic and environmental factors on the chemical composition and energy value for ruminants and non-ruminants of husked and naked oats grain was studied. Winter oats were grown as experimental plots in each of 2 years on three sites in England. At each site two conventional husked oat cultivars (Gerald and Image) and two naked cultivars (Kynon and Pendragon) were grown. At each site, crops were sown on two dates and all crops were grown with the application of either zero or optimum fertiliser nitrogen. Variety and factors contained within the site + year effect had the greatest influence on the chemical composition and nutritive value of oats, followed by nitrogen ferfiliser treatment. For example, compared with zero nitrogen, the optimum nitrogen fertiliser treatment resulted in a consistent and significant (P < 0.001) increase in crude protein for all varieties at all sites from an average of 95 to 118 g kg(-1) DM, increased the potassium concentration in all varieties from an average of 4.9 to 5.1 g kg(-1) DM (P < 0.01) and reduced total lipid by a small but significant (P < 0.001) amount. Optimum nitrogen increased (P < 0.001) the NDF concentration in the two husked varieties and in the naked variety Pendragon. Naked cultivars were lower in fibre, had considerably higher energy, total lipid, linoleic acid, protein, starch and essential amino acids than the husked cultivars. Thus nutritionists need to be selective in their choice of naked or husked oat depending on the intended dietary use. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Whole crop cereals 1. Effect of method of harvest and preservation on chemical composition, apparent digestibility and energy value

A total of 133 samples (53 fermented unprocessed, 19 fermented processed. 62 urea-treated processed) of whole crop wheat (WCW) and 16 samples (five fermented unprocessed, six fermented processed, five urea-treated processed) of whole crop barley (WCB) were collected from commercial farms over two consecutive years (2003/2004 and 2004/2005). Disruption of the maize grains to increase starch availability was achieved at the point of harvest by processors fitted to the forage harvesters. All samples were subjected to laboratory analysis whilst 50 of the samples (24 front Year 1, 26 front Year 2 all WCW except four WCB in Year 2) were subjected to in vivo digestibility and energy value measurements using mature wether sheep. Urea-treated WCW had higher (P<0.05) pH, and dry matter (DM) and crude protein contents and lower concentrations of fermentation products than fermented WCW. Starch was generally lower in fermented, unprocessed WCW and no effect of crop maturity at harvest (as indicated by DM content) on starch concentrations was seen. Urea-treated WCW had higher (P<0.05) in vivo digestible organic matter contents in the DM (DOMD) in Year 1 although this was not recorded in Year 2. There was a close relationship between the digestibility values of organic matter and gross energy thus aiding the use of DOMD to predict metabolisable energy (ME) content. A wide range of ME values was observed (WCW. 8.7-11.8 MJ/kg DM; WCB 7.9-11.2 MJ/kg DM) with the overall ME/DOMD ratio (ME = 0.0156 DOMD) in line With Studies in other forages. There was no evidence that a separate ME/DOMD relationship was needed for WCB which is helpful for practical application. This ratio and other parameters were affected by year of harvest (P<0.05) highlighting the influence of environmental and Other undefined factors. The variability in the composition and nutritive value of WCW and WCB highlights the need for reliable and accurate evaluation methods to be available to assess the Value of these forages before they are included in diets for dairy cows. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Influence of foliar diseases and their control by fungicides on grain yield and quality in wheat

Twenty-eight field experiments on sandy-loam soils in the UK (1982-2003) are reviewed by relating the extension of the green area duration of the flag leaf (GLADF) by fungicides to effects on yield and quality of winter wheat. Over all experiments mean grain yield = 8.85t ha(-1) at 85% DM. With regards quality, mean values were: thousand grain weight (TGW) = 44.5 g; specific weight (SWT) = 76.9 kg hl(-1); crude protein concentration (CP (N x 5.7)) = 12.5 % DM; Hagberg falling number (HFN) = 285 s; and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)-sedimentation volume = 69ml. For each day (d) that fungicides increased GLADF there were associated average increases in yield (0.144 1 ha(-1) d(-1), se 0.0049, df = 333), TGW (0.56 gd(-1), se = 0.017) and SWT (0.22 kg hl(-1) d(-1), se 0.011). Some curvature was evident in all these relationships. When GLADF was delayed beyond 700 degrees Cd after anthesis, as was possible in cool wet seasons, responses were curtailed, or less reliable. Despite this apparent terminal sink limitation, fungicide effects on sink size, eg endosperm cell numbers or maximum water mass per grain, were not prerequisites for large effects on grain yield, TGW or SWT. Fungicide effects on CP were variable. Although the average response of CP was negative (-0.029%DM/d; se = 0.00338), this depended on cultivar and disease controlled. Controlling biotrophs such as rusts, (Puccinia spp.) tended to increase CP, whereas controlling a more necrotrophic pathogen (Septoria tritici) usually reducedCP. Irrespective of pathogen controlled, delaying senescence of the flag leaf was associated with increased nitrogen yields in the grain (averaging 2.24 kg N ha-1 d(-1), se = 0.0848) due to both increased N uptake into the above ground crop, and also more efficient remobilisation of N from leaf laminas. When sulphur availability appeared to be adequate, fungicide x cultivar interactions were similar on S as for CP, although N:S ratios tended to decline (i.e. improve for bread making) when S. tritici was controlled. On average, SDS-sedimentation volume declined (-0. 18 ml/d, se = 0.027) with increased GLADF, broadly commensurate with the average effect on CP. Hagberg falling number decreased as fungicide increased GLADF (-2.73 s/d, se = 0.178), indicating an increase in alpha-amylase activity.

Recovery of nitrogen from different sources following applications to winter wheat at and after anthesis

The effects of applying nitrogen (30 or 40 kg N/ha) to wheat crops at and after anthesis, after 200 kg N/ha had already been applied to the soil during stem extension, were studied in field experiments comprising complete factorial combinations of different cultivars, fungicide applications and nitrogen treatments. Actual recoveries of late-season fertilizer nitrogen (LSFN), as indicated by N-15 studies, interacted with cultivar and fungicide treatment, and depended on nitrogen source (Urea applied as a solution to the foliage, or as ammonium nitrate applied to the soil) and year. These interactions, however, were not reflected in apparent fertilizer recoveries ((N in grain with LSFN - N in grain without LSFN)/N applied as LSFN), or in the crude protein concentration. Apparent fertilizer recovery was always lower than actual recoveries, and declined during grain filling. Fertilizer treatments with higher actual fertilizer recoveries were associated with lower net renlobilisation of non-LSFN (net remobilised N = N in above ground crop at anthesis - N in non-grain, above ground crop at harvest). LSFN also increased mineral nitrogen in the soil at harvest even when applied as a solution to the foliage. These effects are discussed in relation to potential grain N demand. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Intercropping with pulses to concentrate nitrogen and sulphur in wheat

The effects of intercropping wheat with faba bean (Denmark, Germany, Italy and UK) and wheat with pea (France), in additive and replacement designs on grain nitrogen and sulphur concentrations were studied in field experiments in the 2002/03, 2003/04 and 2004/05 growing seasons. Intercropping wheat with grain legumes regularly increased the nitrogen concentration of the cereal grain, irrespective of design or location. Sulphur concentration of the cereal was also increased by intercropping, but less regularly and to a lesser extent compared with effects on nitrogen concentration. Nitrogen concentration (g/kg) in wheat additively intercropped with faba bean was increased by 8% across all sites (weighted for inverse of variance), but sulphur concentration was only increased by 4%, so N:S ratio was also increased by 4%. Intercropping wheat with grain legumes increased sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS)-sedimentation volume. The effect of intercropping on wheat nitrogen concentration was greatest when intercropping had the most deleterious effect on wheat yield and the least deleterious effect on pulse yield. Over all sites and seasons, and irrespective of whether the design was additive or replacement, increases in crude protein concentration in the wheat of 10 g/kg by intercropping with faba bean were associated with 25-30% yield reduction of the wheat, compared with sole-cropped wheat. It was concluded that the increase in protein concentration of wheat grain in intercrops could be of economic benefit when selling wheat for breadmaking, but only if the bean crop was also marketed effectively.