Medições de áreas por fotografias aéreas, em escala nominal, comparadas com a área obtida em fotografias com escalas corrigidas por meio de um SIG

Land use management has becoming a very important activity. Aerial photo interpretation is a basic resource and constitutes in a technique which enables infinite refining. Agricultural development and land use require a careful initial planning in order not only to protect them against superficial changing provoked by natural phenomenon but also to gradually develop its productive capacity. For the efficiency of land management, it is necessary to access correct and detailed information which can be available through aerial images of remote sensing. The use of vertical aerial photography through Remote Sensing has become more common in boundary survey projects, management and exploration, mainly because it substitutes, with lots of advantage, for cartographic bases, besides offering detailed characteristics, eliminating access difficulties in inaccessible areas, as well as facilitating a tridimensional view once it increases map efficiency and accuracy by combining field and laboratory work with photography interpretation. This work, using panchromatic aerial photography in nominal scale 1:25000 (1962), 1:45000 (1977) , and approximate nominal scale of 1:30.000, originating from aerial survey obtained in 2005, aimed at showing through the Geographic Information System (GIS) the possibility of developing a more complete and accurate analysis of the area values, obtained directly from photos without scale correction, and after comparing it with area values obtained from aerial photography with correct scale referred in IGC (Brazilian Cartography and Geography Institute) guidelines, resulting in an error coefficient which shows area differences through two proposed study. Considering the aerial photography in three different years: 1962, 1977 and 2005 it is possible to affirm that the 2005’s images presented lower values of area difference (43, 48 square meters) than determined area values in reference chart and the 2005’s colored images has facilitated the photo interpretation of the landscape, becoming accurate the confronting traces and among land owners and consequently offering precision during land marking.

RB34-6 The Relation of Drouth to Water-Use in Nebraska

Three severe drouths have occurred in Nebraska and adjacent states within the past eighty years, and less severe ones have come at moderately regular intervals. Their influence on the agricultural development of the state is well known, but their relation to water supply in general is not so well understood. This research bulletin is a brief review of the relation of drouth to soil moisture, surface water, and groundwater supplies.

EC30-39 Swine Sanitation

From the very beginning of Nebraska's agricultural development its farmers have recognized that the production of swine must of necessity accompany the growing of corn. The latter, one of the state's most important staples, cannot be marketed in a more economical manner than after having been transformed into pork, bacon, and lard. As a result the state has for many years maintained a rather dense swine population mainly divided into large herds kept on relatively small areas of land. This density of population, as well as certain practices in management and selective breeding, has brought about conditions favorable for the propagation of a number of microbic or parasitic diseases which, in a costly manner, force themselves to our attention. The various factors which affect the incidence of swine diseases are numerous and in a given situtation may be so intricately interwoven as to baffle the observer. This extension circular discusses these factors and how to prevent the spread throughout the swine population.

Eficiência agrícola da produção de soja, milho e trigo no estado do Rio Grande do Sul entre 1980 e 2008

Eficiência agrícola (EA) é utilizada como indicador do nível de desenvolvimento agrícola regional, expressando, por meio da relação entre as produtividades real e atingível, o nível tecnológico empregado nas culturas. Com base nisso, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a EA das culturas da soja, do milho e do trigo para o estado do Rio Grande do Sul, entre os anos de 1980 e 2008, identificando os principais fatores que as condicionaram. A EA foi obtida pela relação entre a produtividade atingível (PA) e a real (PR). A PR foi obtida junto ao banco de dados do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). A PA foi obtida pela estimativa da produtividade potencial (PPf), pelo método de Zona Agroecológica da FAO, deflacionada pelo déficit hídrico em cada uma das fases da cultura. Verificou-se que as EAs médias para as culturas do milho, da soja e do trigo para o RS foram iguais a 54, 61 e 43%, respectivamente. Nas localidades de Santa Rosa, São Borja e Veranópolis, a EA para a soja foi, ao contrário das demais localidades, negativa. Os principais fatores que contribuíram para o aumento da EA, na maioria das localidades, foram: mudanças no uso e fertilidade do solo; uso de mecanização agrícola; preços pagos pelas commodities; investimentos em pesquisa e desenvolvimento; adoção do zoneamento de risco climático; e melhoramento genético.

"Water users must be efficient producers". Women's access to and use of land in Chókwè irrigation scheme, Mozambique

The irrigation scheme Eduardo Mondlane, situated in Chókwè District - in the Southern part of the Gaza province and within the Limpopo River Basin - is the largest in the country, covering approximately 30,000 hectares of land. Built by the Portuguese colonial administration in the 1950s to exploit the agricultural potential of the area through cash-cropping, after Independence it became one of Frelimo’s flagship projects aiming at the “socialization of the countryside” and at agricultural economic development through the creation of a state farm and of several cooperatives. The failure of Frelimo’s economic reforms, several infrastructural constraints and local farmers resistance to collective forms of production led to scheme to a state of severe degradation aggravated by the floods of the year 2000. A project of technical rehabilitation initiated after the floods is currently accompanied by a strong “efficiency” discourse from the managing institution that strongly opposes the use of irrigated land for subsistence agriculture, historically a major livelihood strategy for smallfarmers, particularly for women. In fact, the area has been characterized, since the end of the XIX century, by a stable pattern of male migration towards South African mines, that has resulted in an a steady increase of women-headed households (both de jure and de facto). The relationship between land reform, agricultural development, poverty alleviation and gender equality in Southern Africa is long debated in academic literature. Within this debate, the role of agricultural activities in irrigation schemes is particularly interesting considering that, in a drought-prone area, having access to water for irrigation means increased possibilities of improving food and livelihood security, and income levels. In the case of Chókwè, local governments institutions are endorsing the development of commercial agriculture through initiatives such as partnerships with international cooperation agencies or joint-ventures with private investors. While these business models can sometimes lead to positive outcomes in terms of poverty alleviation, it is important to recognize that decentralization and neoliberal reforms occur in the context of financial and political crisis of the State that lacks the resources to efficiently manage infrastructures such as irrigation systems. This kind of institutional and economic reforms risk accelerating processes of social and economic marginalisation, including landlessness, in particular for poor rural women that mainly use irrigated land for subsistence production. The study combines an analysis of the historical and geographical context with the study of relevant literature and original fieldwork. Fieldwork was conducted between February and June 2007 (where I mainly collected secondary data, maps and statistics and conducted preliminary visit to Chókwè) and from October 2007 to March 2008. Fieldwork methodology was qualitative and used semi-structured interviews with central and local Government officials, technical experts of the irrigation scheme, civil society organisations, international NGOs, rural extensionists, and water users from the irrigation scheme, in particular those women smallfarmers members of local farmers’ associations. Thanks to the collaboration with the Union of Farmers’ Associations of Chókwè, she has been able to participate to members’ meeting, to education and training activities addressed to women farmers members of the Union and to organize a group discussion. In Chókwè irrigation scheme, women account for the 32% of water users of the familiar sector (comprising plot-holders with less than 5 hectares of land) and for just 5% of the private sector. If one considers farmers’ associations of the familiar sector (a legacy of Frelimo’s cooperatives), women are 84% of total members. However, the security given to them by the land title that they have acquired through occupation is severely endangered by the use that they make of land, that is considered as “non efficient” by the irrigation scheme authority. Due to a reduced access to marketing possibilities and to inputs, training, information and credit women, in actual fact, risk to see their right to access land and water revoked because they are not able to sustain the increasing cost of the water fee. The myth of the “efficient producer” does not take into consideration the characteristics of inequality and gender discrimination of the neo-liberal market. Expecting small-farmers, and in particular women, to be able to compete in the globalized agricultural market seems unrealistic, and can perpetuate unequal gendered access to resources such as land and water.

Aspetti di sostenibilità in agricoltura a diverse scale spaziali e temporali. Valutazioni ambientali, economiche ed energetiche.

La Tesi analizza le relazioni tra i processi di sviluppo agricolo e l’uso delle risorse naturali, in particolare di quelle energetiche, a livello internazionale (paesi in via di sviluppo e sviluppati), nazionale (Italia), regionale (Emilia Romagna) e aziendale, con lo scopo di valutare l’eco-efficienza dei processi di sviluppo agricolo, la sua evoluzione nel tempo e le principali dinamiche in relazione anche ai problemi di dipendenza dalle risorse fossili, della sicurezza alimentare, della sostituzione tra superfici agricole dedicate all’alimentazione umana ed animale. Per i due casi studio a livello macroeconomico è stata adottata la metodologia denominata “SUMMA” SUstainability Multi-method, multi-scale Assessment (Ulgiati et al., 2006), che integra una serie di categorie d’impatto dell’analisi del ciclo di vita, LCA, valutazioni costi-benefici e la prospettiva di analisi globale della contabilità emergetica. L’analisi su larga scala è stata ulteriormente arricchita da un caso studio sulla scala locale, di una fattoria produttrice di latte e di energia elettrica rinnovabile (fotovoltaico e biogas). Lo studio condotto mediante LCA e valutazione contingente ha valutato gli effetti ambientali, economici e sociali di scenari di riduzione della dipendenza dalle fonti fossili. I casi studio a livello macroeconomico dimostrano che, nonostante le politiche di supporto all’aumento di efficienza e a forme di produzione “verdi”, l’agricoltura a livello globale continua ad evolvere con un aumento della sua dipendenza dalle fonti energetiche fossili. I primi effetti delle politiche agricole comunitarie verso una maggiore sostenibilità sembrano tuttavia intravedersi per i Paesi Europei. Nel complesso la energy footprint si mantiene alta poiché la meccanizzazione continua dei processi agricoli deve necessariamente attingere da fonti energetiche sostitutive al lavoro umano. Le terre agricole diminuiscono nei paesi europei analizzati e in Italia aumentando i rischi d’insicurezza alimentare giacché la popolazione nazionale sta invece aumentando.

UNDERSTANDING FARMERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND THE EFFECTS OF SHEA TREE Vitellaria paradoxa DISTRIBUTION IN AGROFORESTRY PARKLANDS OF THE UPPER WEST REGION, GHANA

Agroforestry parklands represent a vast majority of the agricultural landscape under subsistent-oriented farming in semi-arid West Africa. Parklands are characterized by the growth of well- maintained trees (e.g., shea) on cultivated fields as a result of both environmental and human influences. Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) provides a cultural and economic benefit to the local people of Ghana, especially women. Periods between traditional fallow rotation systems have reduced recently due to agricultural development and a demand for higher production. As a result, shea trees, which regenerate during fallow periods, has decreased over the landscape. The aim of this study was to determine beneficial spatial distributions of V. paradoxa to maintain high yields of staple crops, and how management of V. paradoxa will differ between male and female farmers as a result of farmer based needs and use of shea. Vegetation growth and grain yield of maize (Zea mays) associated with individual trees, clumped trees, and open fields were measured. Soil moisture and light availability were also measured to determine how V. paradoxa affected resource availability of maize in either clumped or scattered distributions of V. paradoxa. As expected, light availability increased as measurement locations moved farther away from all trees. However, soil moisture was actually greater under trees in clumps than under individual trees. Maize stalk height and cob length showed no difference between clumped and single trees at each measurement location. Grain yield per plot and per cob increased as measurement locations moved farther from single trees, but was actually greater near clumped trees that in the open field subplots. Cob length and maize stalk height increased with greater light availability, but grain yield per cob or per plot showed no relationship with light, but were not affected by soil moisture. Conversely, grain yield increased with increasing soil moisture, but had no relationship with light availability. Initial farming capital is the largest constraint to female farmers; therefore the collection of shea can help provide women with added income that could meet their specific farming needs. Our data indicate that overall effects of maintaining clumped distributions of V. paradoxa provided beneficial microclimates for staple crops when compared to single trees. It is recommended that male and female farmers allow shea to grow in clumped spatial distributions rather than maintaining scattered, individual trees.

Contextualizing local-scale point sample data using global-scale spatial datasets: Lessons learnt from the analysis of large-scale land acquisitions

This paper examines how the geospatial accuracy of samples and sample size influence conclusions from geospatial analyses. It does so using the example of a study investigating the global phenomenon of large-scale land acquisitions and the socio-ecological characteristics of the areas they target. First, we analysed land deal datasets of varying geospatial accuracy and varying sizes and compared the results in terms of land cover, population density, and two indicators for agricultural potential: yield gap and availability of uncultivated land that is suitable for rainfed agriculture. We found that an increase in geospatial accuracy led to a substantial and greater change in conclusions about the land cover types targeted than an increase in sample size, suggesting that using a sample of higher geospatial accuracy does more to improve results than using a larger sample. The same finding emerged for population density, yield gap, and the availability of uncultivated land suitable for rainfed agriculture. Furthermore, the statistical median proved to be more consistent than the mean when comparing the descriptive statistics for datasets of different geospatial accuracy. Second, we analysed effects of geospatial accuracy on estimations regarding the potential for advancing agricultural development in target contexts. Our results show that the target contexts of the majority of land deals in our sample whose geolocation is known with a high level of accuracy contain smaller amounts of suitable, but uncultivated land than regional- and national-scale averages suggest. Consequently, the more target contexts vary within a country, the more detailed the spatial scale of analysis has to be in order to draw meaningful conclusions about the phenomena under investigation. We therefore advise against using national-scale statistics to approximate or characterize phenomena that have a local-scale impact, particularly if key indicators vary widely within a country.

Classification criteria and commercial profile re-definition of the Family Farm Agriculture in Chile, Maule region

In Chile, small-scale farmers are classified according to old approaches from 1993 that do not include changes occurred in the last two decades. Maule is the region with most rural population in Chile which represents a significant stratum for development, innovation and competitiveness. This study explores a new approach of small-scale farmers -associated with Family Farm Agriculture (AFC) - classification in Chile and it describes a commercial profile or AFC-1 for famers of the Maule Region. A Cluster analysis to determine AFC-1 farmers is used. The analysis includes four association variables: Total Assets, Farm Income, Production Costs and Management Indicators. The results suggest that 16.4% of the farmers have a commercial profile and they could stay out support provided by the National Institute for Agricultural Development (INDAP). This group of farmers would not belong to AFC in short terms. This fact could bring restriction to AFC-1 farmers such as lack of credit access, less investment incentives and technical assistance. Thus, it would expect low process of technology adoption and welfare improvement. New agrarian policies must be warranted to support this important group of famers with a commercial profile.

Problemas y debates sobre la ocupación y el empleo en el agro pampeano de la sojización

Las transformaciones que sufrió el agro pampeano durante los últimos veinte años han tenido particular trascendencia sobre la mano de obra encargada de sembrar, laborar y levantar las 'cosechas récord'. Sin embargo, no existe consenso con respecto a las consecuencias que este proceso tuvo sobre el volumen global de la ocupación agropecuaria. La magnitud y velocidad de los cambios han motivado distintas reflexiones sobre la cuestión, las cuales han estado atravesadas por una polémica subyacente con respecto a la valoración que debería merecer este modelo de desarrollo agropecuario para el conjunto de la sociedad. Este escrito se propone aportar elementos estadísticos y conceptuales que consideramos han sido abordados aún parcialmente en los trabajos al respecto, los cuales, debidamente reprocesados y comparados entre sí, nos brindan un insumo de utilidad para evaluar este aspecto sustancial del desarrollo del capitalismo agrario pampeano.

Evolución de la Política Agrícola Brasileña : 1980-2010

El objetivo de este artículo es mostrar cuáles fueron las características de la política agrícola stricto sensu que favoreció el agronegocio y el desarrollo agropecuario en Brasil en los últimos 30 años. Para entender este proceso, se realiza una breve descripción de los instrumentos de política agrícola adoptados por el Gobierno en ese lapso, en función de la necesidad de adaptarse a las exigencias de la OMC y a las restricciones de la coyuntura. En la primera fase, de 1964 hasta 1985, se consiguió aumentar significativamente la producción agrícola garantizando el abastecimiento interno, que era el gran obstáculo verificado en el período pre-1964. La modernización agrícola fue conseguida con un gran costo social, pero cabe resaltar que esta cuestión no era una preocupación central de los gobiernos militares. En la segunda fase (1985-2001), cuando comienza la redemocratización, la política agrícola también se integra y es consistente con los objetivos macroeconómicos. Se buscaba en esa época disminuir el déficit fiscal y pagar la deuda externa, lo que fue conseguido con los grandes excedentes generados por el agronegocio a pesar de la disminución drástica de los subsidios agrícolas que fue necesario implementar. En el tercer período (2002-presente) se busca conciliar la promoción del agronegocio con la reducción de la pobreza, que era una agenda pendiente de la democratización y que había sido postergada en función de la necesidad de resolver los problemas fiscales e inflacionarios de la década del 80. Una vez resuelto el problema de la inflación, el Estado recupera su capacidad de planificación y comienza a atacar los problemas sociales.

Problemas y debates sobre la ocupación y el empleo en el agro pampeano de la sojización

Las transformaciones que sufrió el agro pampeano durante los últimos veinte años han tenido particular trascendencia sobre la mano de obra encargada de sembrar, laborar y levantar las 'cosechas récord'. Sin embargo, no existe consenso con respecto a las consecuencias que este proceso tuvo sobre el volumen global de la ocupación agropecuaria. La magnitud y velocidad de los cambios han motivado distintas reflexiones sobre la cuestión, las cuales han estado atravesadas por una polémica subyacente con respecto a la valoración que debería merecer este modelo de desarrollo agropecuario para el conjunto de la sociedad. Este escrito se propone aportar elementos estadísticos y conceptuales que consideramos han sido abordados aún parcialmente en los trabajos al respecto, los cuales, debidamente reprocesados y comparados entre sí, nos brindan un insumo de utilidad para evaluar este aspecto sustancial del desarrollo del capitalismo agrario pampeano.

Evolución de la Política Agrícola Brasileña : 1980-2010

El objetivo de este artículo es mostrar cuáles fueron las características de la política agrícola stricto sensu que favoreció el agronegocio y el desarrollo agropecuario en Brasil en los últimos 30 años. Para entender este proceso, se realiza una breve descripción de los instrumentos de política agrícola adoptados por el Gobierno en ese lapso, en función de la necesidad de adaptarse a las exigencias de la OMC y a las restricciones de la coyuntura. En la primera fase, de 1964 hasta 1985, se consiguió aumentar significativamente la producción agrícola garantizando el abastecimiento interno, que era el gran obstáculo verificado en el período pre-1964. La modernización agrícola fue conseguida con un gran costo social, pero cabe resaltar que esta cuestión no era una preocupación central de los gobiernos militares. En la segunda fase (1985-2001), cuando comienza la redemocratización, la política agrícola también se integra y es consistente con los objetivos macroeconómicos. Se buscaba en esa época disminuir el déficit fiscal y pagar la deuda externa, lo que fue conseguido con los grandes excedentes generados por el agronegocio a pesar de la disminución drástica de los subsidios agrícolas que fue necesario implementar. En el tercer período (2002-presente) se busca conciliar la promoción del agronegocio con la reducción de la pobreza, que era una agenda pendiente de la democratización y que había sido postergada en función de la necesidad de resolver los problemas fiscales e inflacionarios de la década del 80. Una vez resuelto el problema de la inflación, el Estado recupera su capacidad de planificación y comienza a atacar los problemas sociales.

Evolución de la Política Agrícola Brasileña : 1980-2010

El objetivo de este artículo es mostrar cuáles fueron las características de la política agrícola stricto sensu que favoreció el agronegocio y el desarrollo agropecuario en Brasil en los últimos 30 años. Para entender este proceso, se realiza una breve descripción de los instrumentos de política agrícola adoptados por el Gobierno en ese lapso, en función de la necesidad de adaptarse a las exigencias de la OMC y a las restricciones de la coyuntura. En la primera fase, de 1964 hasta 1985, se consiguió aumentar significativamente la producción agrícola garantizando el abastecimiento interno, que era el gran obstáculo verificado en el período pre-1964. La modernización agrícola fue conseguida con un gran costo social, pero cabe resaltar que esta cuestión no era una preocupación central de los gobiernos militares. En la segunda fase (1985-2001), cuando comienza la redemocratización, la política agrícola también se integra y es consistente con los objetivos macroeconómicos. Se buscaba en esa época disminuir el déficit fiscal y pagar la deuda externa, lo que fue conseguido con los grandes excedentes generados por el agronegocio a pesar de la disminución drástica de los subsidios agrícolas que fue necesario implementar. En el tercer período (2002-presente) se busca conciliar la promoción del agronegocio con la reducción de la pobreza, que era una agenda pendiente de la democratización y que había sido postergada en función de la necesidad de resolver los problemas fiscales e inflacionarios de la década del 80. Una vez resuelto el problema de la inflación, el Estado recupera su capacidad de planificación y comienza a atacar los problemas sociales.

Problemas y debates sobre la ocupación y el empleo en el agro pampeano de la sojización

Las transformaciones que sufrió el agro pampeano durante los últimos veinte años han tenido particular trascendencia sobre la mano de obra encargada de sembrar, laborar y levantar las 'cosechas récord'. Sin embargo, no existe consenso con respecto a las consecuencias que este proceso tuvo sobre el volumen global de la ocupación agropecuaria. La magnitud y velocidad de los cambios han motivado distintas reflexiones sobre la cuestión, las cuales han estado atravesadas por una polémica subyacente con respecto a la valoración que debería merecer este modelo de desarrollo agropecuario para el conjunto de la sociedad. Este escrito se propone aportar elementos estadísticos y conceptuales que consideramos han sido abordados aún parcialmente en los trabajos al respecto, los cuales, debidamente reprocesados y comparados entre sí, nos brindan un insumo de utilidad para evaluar este aspecto sustancial del desarrollo del capitalismo agrario pampeano.