The murky waters of neoliberal marketization and commodification on the education of adults in the United States

We approach marketization and commodification of adult education from multiple lenses including our personal narratives and neoliberalism juxtaposed against the educational philosophy of the Progressive Period. We argue that adult education occurs in many arenas including the public spaces found in social movements, community-based organizations, and government sponsored programs designed to engage and give voice to all citizens toward building a stronger civil society. We conclude that only when adult education is viewed from the university lens, where it focuses on the individual and not the public good, does it succumb to neoliberal forces. (DIPF/Orig.)

A Comparison of the Effects of Classroom and Multi-User Virtual Environments on the Perceived Speaking Anxiety of Adult Post-Secondary English Language Learners

The population of English Language Learners (ELLs) globally has been increasing substantially every year. In the United States alone, adult ELLs are the fastest growing portion of learners in adult education programs (Yang, 2005). There is a significant need to improve the teaching of English to ELLs in the United States and other English-speaking dominant countries. However, for many ELLs, speaking, especially to Native English Speakers (NESs), causes considerable language anxiety, which in turn plays a vital role in hindering their language development and academic progress (Pichette, 2009; Woodrow, 2006). Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT), such as simulation activities, has long been viewed as an effective approach for second-language development. The current advances in technology and rapid emergence of Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs) have provided an opportunity for educators to consider conducting simulations online for ELLs to practice speaking English to NESs. Yet to date, empirical research on the effects of MUVEs on ELLs’ language development and speaking is limited (Garcia-Ruiz, Edwards, & Aquino-Santos, 2007). This study used a true experimental treatment control group repeated measures design to compare the perceived speaking anxiety levels (as measured by an anxiety scale administered per simulation activity) of 11 ELLs (5 in the control group, 6 in the experimental group) when speaking to Native English Speakers (NESs) during 10 simulation activities. Simulations in the control group were done face-to-face, while those in the experimental group were done in the MUVE of Second Life. The results of the repeated measures ANOVA revealed after the Huynh-Feldt epsilon correction, demonstrated for both groups a significant decrease in anxiety levels over time from the first simulation to the tenth and final simulation. When comparing the two groups, the results revealed a statistically significant difference, with the experimental group demonstrating a greater anxiety reduction. These results suggests that language instructors should consider including face-to-face and MUVE simulations with ELLs paired with NESs as part of their language instruction. Future investigations should investigate the use of other multi-user virtual environments and/or measure other dimensions of the ELL/NES interactions.

Andragogy as a Knowledge Driving Discipline in Higher Education

This paper exposes the diachronic (historical overview) of Andragogy (or Adult Education) and its introduction as a discipline in the context of university education. Based on the andragogical principles of the adult thought process and the work experience, this study sets out Adult Education as an education option to be implemented in higher education, in Costa Rica, to develop cognitive and meta-cognitive competencies in the university students, in the different academic areas simultaneously, by reproducing the Socratic maieutics, which is structured within the Kolb’s experiential learning cycle.

Transformational learning in the workplace

Although transformative learning theory remains one of the most influential theories in the field of adult education, studies on fostering transformative learning, particularly in groups and in the workplace, remain sparse. This article summarises some evidence of transformational learning that influenced changes to practice, processes, and the organisational culture in a case study. It is based on a cohort of 12 worker-learners enrolled in a Graduate Certificate in Education (Executive Leadership) course offered by an Australian university (Queensland University of Technology). Data for this article were drawn from interviews with 10 participants, a focus group with 6 of them, their assessment presentations, and reflective notes of the course facilitators. Also included here are the effects on transformational learning of Taylor’s five elements of work-based learning design, Fuller and Unwins’ features of expansive learning, and Billett’s workplace pedagogies.

An historical analysis of the development of thinking in the principal writings of Malcolm Knowles

Malcolm Shepherd Knowles was a key writer and theorist in the field of adult education in the United States. He died in 1997 and left a large legacy of books and journal articles. This thesis traced the development of his thinking over the 46-year period from 1950 to 1995. It examined the 25 works authored, co-authored, edited, reissued and revised by him during that period. The writings were scrutinised using a literature research methodology to expose the theoretical content, and a history of thought lens to identify and account for the development of major ideas. The methodology enabled a gradual unfolding of the history. A broadly-consistent and sequential pattern of thought focusing on the notion of andragogy emerged. The study revealed that after the initial phases of exploratory thinking, Knowles developed a practical-theoretical framework he believed could function as a comprehensive theory of adult learning. As his thinking progressed, his theory developed into a unified framework for human resource development and, later, into a model for the development of self-directed lifelong learners. The study traced the development of Knowles’ thinking through the phases of thought, identified the writings that belonged within each phase and produced a series of diagrammatic representations showing the evolution of his conceptual framework. The production of a history of the development of Knowles’ thought is the major outcome of the study. In addition to plotting the narrative sequence of thought-events, the history helps to explicate the factors and conditions that influenced Knowles’ thinking and to show the interrelationships between ideas. The study should help practitioners in their use and appreciation of Knowles’ works.

Malcolm Shepherd Knowles : A History of His Thought

This book traces the evolution of thinking of the American adult educator, Malcolm Knowles, and maps the development of his conceptual framework over the period 1950 to 1995. It constructs an overall narrative history of Knowles’ thought, and shows how andragogy provided him with both a label and a unifying theme for his practical-theoretical framework aimed at producing self-directed lifelong learners. Knowles died in 1997 and left a large legacy of books and journal articles. The book examines the writings that constitute Knowles' principal works. It identifies the major elements of his thought, shows the interrelationships between ideas and indicates the major phases through which his thinking passed. Importantly, the book establishes that Knowles’ theorising was traceable and that he possessed a clear and coherent conceptual framework.

Implementing academagogy : the first case study

As proposed in McAuliffe, Winter, Chadwick and Hargreaves (2008), academagogy could be used as an “umbrella” term allowing the teacher to select from a range of teaching approaches – pedagogy (teacher as source of all information to student without power or knowledge), andragogy (teacher as source of information for adult student), or heutagogy (student with knowledge seeking information from teacher to fill the gaps in their own knowledge). During Semester 1, 2009, one of the authors of this paper decided to treat his third-year students in a more heutagogical manner by allowing them to experience ownership of their own learning. This article is a case study of that experience which reveals that, although initially more time-consuming, academagogy can result in better student outcomes.

Theatre-arts pedagogy for social justice : case study of the area youth foundation in Jamaica

In this paper I describe and analyse the socio-educational significance of a theatre arts approach to learning for young adults in Jamaica, implemented by the Area Youth Foundation (AYF). Briefly outlining the genesis and development of the AYF, I provide snapshots of the experiences and destinations of some of its young participants. The paper discusses AYF workshops to show how the pedagogy was shaped by the expressive arts and based on the critical praxis approach systematized by Paulo Freire in adult education and Augusto Boal in theatre. Based on interviews with AYF’s leader and some of the learners, I discuss how the foundation’s motto, “Youth Empowerment Through the Arts,” is played out in workshops and creative productions that are simultaneously learner-driven and teacher-guided, with the powerful impact of inspiring politically thoughtful creativity and skills in youths from less-privileged communities.

Yliopistokoulutuksen avoimuus ja refleksiivisyys : Suomalaisen yliopistoaikuiskoulutuksen rakenteistumisen analyysia

Openness and reflexivity of university education in the analysis of structuration of Finnish university adult education This research has been organised on three levels around a specific theoretical theme of the reflexivity of schooling. The argument developed has the same layered structure. At the first level, within the theoretical disposition of structuration, I develop methodological solutions, which allow the theme of reflexivity to be taken into account in the research concerning the organisational change of schooling. The conceptual work has been carried out in the research setting “morphogenesis vs. structuration”, which was initially formulated by Margaret Archer. Following this setting, structuration is taken to be a concern of the theoretical thinking of both Anthony Giddens and Pierre Bourdieu. The essential results achieved at this research level are presented as developing a synthesis of the theoretical thinking of Giddens and Bourdieu. I am arguing in favour of meta theoretical possibility and the empirical fertility of such a synthesis. The latter is especially the case, when the aim is to grasp the cultural dynamics in the processes of organising schooling. At the second level of empirical-historical theorising about schooling I confine the treatment of the theme of reflexivity to the topic of the openness of university education. While operating through the level of substantive theorising of schooling, I am constructing a cross disciplinary point of view on the phenomenon of openness and its empirical research. This is done in such manner that demonstrates how the structuration approach, understood as synthesising the meta theory of Giddens and Bourdieu, can take into account the theme of the reflexivity of schooling. In the actual empirical part of the study, the third level, I explore the genesis of the Finnish open university. This leads to narrowing down the topic of openness and to focussing on how adult education is organised. The analysis of structuration is supported by the ideal type -like notion of university adult education, since this allows the comparative and historical research strategy required for the task. I argue the importance of such a notion at the level of substantive theorising of schooling. The results of my historical analysis are presented through three articles and a commentary chapter.

Opiskelun ohjaus etälukiossa

Tutkimus tarkastelee opiskelijoiden kokemuksia opiskelun ohjauksesta etälukiossa. Etälukio on opetushallituksen syksyllä 1997 aloittama itseopiskeluväylä, jonka kautta voi suorittaa joko koko lukion oppimäärän tai yksittäisiäkursseja. Tutkimuksessa mielenkiinnon kohteena on ensinnäkin etälukiolaisten ohjauksen tarve ja heidän ohjauksensa toteutus. Ohjauksen toteutuksen tarkastelu jakaantuu kahteen osioon, kaksi-kolme kertaa kuussa järjestettävän lähiopetuksen tarkasteluun sekä faksin, kirjeen, puhelimen ja sähköpostin kautta tapahtuvan ohjauksen tarkasteluun. Keskeistä tutkimuksessa on myös opiskelijoiden ohjaukseen liittyvien kokemusten tarkastelu sekä se, millä tavoin ohjauksella on tuettu opiskelijoiden itsenäisten opiskeluvalmiuksien kehittymistä. Tutkimuksen teoriatausta jakaantuu kahteen osaan. Ensiksi analysoidaan etäopiskelun uusiin opiskeluympäristöihin keskeisesti liittyvää käsitettä avoin opiskeluympäristö, jonka määrittely on osoittautunut vaikeaksi. Toisen keskeisen osan teoriataustaa muodostaa ohjaus-käsitteen tarkastelu. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin kahta tiedonhankintamenetelmää. Kvantitatiiviseen kyselylomakkeeseen toukokuussa 1998 vastasi 115 opiskelijaa etälukion pilottialueilta Satakunnasta, Savosta ja Varsinais-Suomesta. Kyselylomakkeella hankittuja tietoja täydennettiin haastatteluilla joulukuussa 1998. Etälukiolaisten ohjauksen tarkastelu osoitti, että etälukio-opiskelu eroaa vain vähän muusta aikuislukio-opiskelusta. Suurimmalla osalla etälukiolaisista on tavoitteena ylioppilastutkinto, jonka sisällöt ja vaatimukset selkeästi rajoittavat yksilöllisyyden ja joustavuuden toteutumista etälukiossa. Etälukion opiskeluympäristön avoimuuden määrittely tarkemmin on jatkossa olennaisen tärkeätä. Tulokset osoittavat, että etälukiolaisten ohjaustarve oli ollut alhainen. Etälukion suorittaminen itsenäisesti osoittautui mahdolliseksi. Suurimman osan ohjauksesta opiskelijat olivat saaneet osallistumalla lähiopetukseen. Lähiopetus osoittautui luonteeltaan opettajajohtoiseksi ryhmäopetukseksi. Opiskelijat kokivat, että lähiopetukseen oleva aika on rajallinen, joten henkilökohtaisen ohjauksen pyytäminen lähiopetuksessa ei ollut ollut mahdollista. Opiskelijoista 40% oli hyödyntänyt lähiopetuksen lisäksi tarjottua ohjausta joko vain hyvin vähän tai ei lainkaan. Opiskelijoista yli puolet ei ollut käyttänyt sähköpostia lainkaan tai oli käyttänyt sitä vain harvemmin kuin kerran kuussa. Internetin ja sähköpostin käyttötaidoilla ei koettu olevan suurta merkitystä etälukio-opiskelussa. Opiskelijoiden ohjaukseen liittämät kokemukset olivat positiivisia. Tärkeintä opiskelijoille oli tieto siitä,että ohjausta oli tarvittaessa ollut saatavilla, vaikka sitä oli vain vähän hyödynnetty. Etälukiolaiset eivät kokeneet etälukio-opiskelun vaatineen uusien itsenäisten opiskelutaitojen oppimista. Avainsanat: avoin opiskeluympäristö, etäopiskelu, opiskelun ohjaus, tutorointi, aikuisopiskelu, etälukio Keywords: open learning, distance education, student guidance, tutoring, adult education, upper secondary distance learning

Ammatillinen osaaminen ja täydennyskoulutus : tiedon ja osaamisen leviäminen osallistujien välillä

The goal of my research was to describe how adult students perceive professional knowledge and know-how, and how these diffuse among a group of students during a continuing education program. The goal was also to research the meaning of shared working life experience in improving the professional know-how of the students. My research is positioned in the field of supporting environments for adult learning with an emphasis on interaction between students in social networks. The participants of my research were 31 adult students taking part in continuing education program at the time of my study. I gathered the research data using quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitative network enquiry led me to do 9 theme interviews. I analyzed the data using a network analyzing program and a content analyzing method. I examined the whole community of students, the home groups of four students and the main actors who were central for the community. The analysis focused on the distribution network of professional knowledge and know-how, the distribution network of social support and the network of reciprocal interaction. Professional knowledge and know-how that diffuse between adult students in continuing education, is mostly hands-on tips and occupational experience. The factors that promote the distribution of professional experience and know-how are structural ones and factors that emphasize co-operation relationships. The structural factors are participation in adult education and in home groups and also organizational arrangements of learning. The factors that emphasize co-operation relationships are encouragement and doing learning assignments together. The central distributors of professional know-how are adult students who have long working life experience. The meaning of the diffusion of professional experience and know-how for improving professional know-how of a single adult student is in developing his professional identity and adding his social capital. In the social interaction networks, which I studied, more relations exist inside the home groups than between them, which is congruent with earlier researches. My research can be utilized by using its research methods and emphasizing its results in adult education planning and guidance.

Koko talo soi : Klemetti-Opisto suomalaisen musiikkikulttuurin kehittäjänä 1953-1968

This study aims to examine the operations and significance of the Klemetti Institute (Klemetti-Opisto) as a developer of Finnish music culture from 1953 to 1968 during the term of office of the Institute s founder and first director, Arvo Vainio. The Klemetti Institute was originally established as a choir institute, but soon expanded to offer a wide range of music courses. In addition to providing courses for choir leaders and singers, the Institute began its orchestral activities as early as the mid-1950s. Other courses included ear training seminars as well as courses for young people s music instructors and in playing the kantele (a Finnish string instrument) and solo singing. More than 20 types of courses were offered over the 16-year period. The Klemetti Institute s courses were incorporated into the folk high school courses offered by the Orivesi Institute (Oriveden Opisto) and were organised during the summer months of June and July. In addition to funding based on the Folk High School Act, financial assistance was obtained from various foundations and funds, such as the Wihuri Foundation. This study is linked to the context of historical research. I examine the Klemetti Institute s operations chronologically, classifying instruction into different course types, and analyse concert activities primarily in the section on the Institute s student union. The source material includes the Klemetti Institute archives, which consist of Arvo Vainio s correspondence, student applications, register books and cards, journals and student lists, course albums and nearly all issues of the Klemettiläinen bulletin. In addition, I have used focused interviews and essays to obtain extensive data from students and teachers. I concentrate on primary school teachers, who accounted for the majority of course participants. A total of more than 2,300 people participated in the courses, nearly half of whom took courses during at least two summers. Primary school teachers accounted for 50% to 70% of the participants in most courses and constituted an even larger share of participants in some courses, such as the music instructor course. The Klemetti Institute contributed to the expansion throughout Finland of a new ideal for choral tone. This involved delicate singing which strives for tonal purity and expressiveness. Chamber choirs had been virtually unheard of in Finland, but the Klemetti Institute Chamber Choir popularised them. Chamber choirs are characterised by an extensive singing repertoire ranging from the Middle Ages to the present. As the name suggests, chamber choirs were originally rather small mixed choirs. Delicate singing meant the avoidance of extensive vibrato techniques and strong, heavy forte sounds, which had previously been typical of Finnish choirs. Those opposing and shunning this new manner of singing called it ghost singing . The Klemetti Institute s teachers included Finland s most prominent pedagogues and artists. As the focused essays, or reminiscences as I call them, show, their significance for the students was central. I examine extensively the Klemetti Institute s enthusiastic atmosphere, which during the early years was characterised by what some writers described as a hunger for music . In addition to distributing a new tonal ideal and choir repertoire, the Klemetti Institute also distributed new methods of music education, thus affecting the music teaching of Finnish primary schools, in particular. The Orff approach, which included various instruments, became well known, although some of Orff s ideas, such as improvisation and physical exercise, were initially unfamiliar. More important than the Orff approach was the in-depth teaching at the Klemetti Institute of the Hungarian ear training method known as the Kodály method. Many course participants were among those launching specialist music classes in schools, and the method became the foundation for music teaching in many such schools. The Klemetti Institute was also a pioneer in organising orchestra camps for young people. The Klemetti Institute promoted Finnish music culture and played an important role in the continuing music education of primary school teachers. Keywords: adult education, Grundtvigian philosophy, popular enlightenment, Klemetti Institute, Kodály method, choir singing, choir conducting, music history, music education, music culture, music camp, Orff approach, Orff-Schulwerk, Orivesi Institute, instrument teaching, free popular education, communality, solo singing, voice production