Identificación empírica de beneficios de usabilidad

La usabilidad es un atributo de la calidad del software que se encuentra en la mayoría de las clasificaciones. En este contexto, se entiende por usabilidad la medida en que un producto satisface las necesidades de los stakeholders para alcanzar determinados objetivos de eficacia, eficiencia y satisfacción sin efectos adversos en un contexto específico de uso. En este contexto, no es de extrañar que la usabilidad sea cada vez más reconocida como uno de los factores críticos para la aceptación de un sistema software. En la literatura se encuentran recomendaciones para mejorar la usabilidad de los sistemas software. Sin embargo, no existen datos empíricos que demuestren cómo estas recomendaciones contribuyen positiva o negativamente a cada atributo de usabilidad. En este contexto, el objetivo de la tesis doctoral es la obtención de evidencias empíricas sobre el impacto de la inclusión de mecanismos de usabilidad en un sistema software, más concretamente en los atributos de eficacia, eficiencia y satisfacción-- En esta tesis doctoral se trabaja con mecanismos de usabilidad con gran impacto en la arquitectura software, ya que los mismos deben ser especialmente considerados durante el proceso de desarrollo software. Para obtener evidencias empíricas sobre la inclusión de dichos mecanismos, se ha realizado un experimento piloto y 4 experimentos definitivos utilizando aplicaciones software especialmente desarrolladas para tal fin. Una vez realizada la contrastación empírica de la influencia de estos mecanismos para diferentes sistemas software se pueden realizar las siguientes recomendaciones generales: -La inclusión de cada uno de los mecanismos considerados aumenta considerablemente la satisfacción del usuario en su interacción con las aplicaciones software. -La inclusión de aquellos mecanismos que introducen cuadros de interacción adicionales, disminuye la eficiencia de los usuarios, ya que aumenta el tiempo de duración de las tareas. -Existen una serie de mecanismos que como consecuencia de su ausencia en las aplicaciones resulta imposible la realización de las tareas asociadas a los mismos. Dentro de éste grupo de mecanismos se encuentran aquellos que permiten cancelar o deshacer acciones previamente tomadas y aquellos que provean ayuda en la introducción de información en formularios. Esto implica que su presencia permite la realización exitosa de las tareas y como consecuencia la interacción es mucho más eficaz. En definitiva, se ha encontrado que los distintos mecanismos de usabilidad tienen un impacto diferente en cada atributo, dependiendo su inclusión del/los atributos a potenciar en cada proyecto. Usability is an aspect of software quality that´s found in most classifications. In this context usability is understood as the measure in which a product satisfies the needs of the stakeholders in order to reach certain effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction goals without adverse sideeffects in a specific context of use. It´s no wonder usability is increasingly being recognized as one of the critical factors for the acceptance of a software system. Recommendations are found in literature to improve the usability of software systems. Nevertheless, there is no empirical data that shows how these recommendations contribute positively or negatively to each usability aspect. In this context, the objective of this doctoral thesis is to obtain empirical evidence on the impact of the inclusion of usability mechanisms in a software system, specifically in the attributes of effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction. This doctoral thesis deals with usability mechanisms of great impact in software architecture, since they have to be considered during the software development process. In order to get empirical evidence on the inclusion of such mechanisms, a pilot experiment and four definitive experiments have been performed through software applications especially developed for this end. Once the empirical assessment of the influence of these mechanisms on different software systems has been performed, the following general recommendations can be made: -The inclusion of each of the considered mechanisms considerably increases the user´s satisfaction in his interaction with software applications. -The inclusion of those mechanisms that introduce additional interaction frames diminishes the efficiency of the users, since it increases task duration time. -As a consequence of being absent in applications, there is a series of mechanisms whose associated tasks are impossible to perform. Within this group we find those mechanisms that allow cancelling or undoing previous actions, and those that provide help with the introduction of information in forms. This implies that their presence allows the successful completion of tasks, and as a consequence, the interaction is much more effective. In summary, it has been found that the diverse usability mechanisms has a different impact on each attribute, and their inclusion depends on the attribute or attributes to enhance in each project.

Effectiveness for detecting faults within and outside the scope of testing techniques: an independent replication

The verification and validation activity plays a fundamental role in improving software quality. Determining which the most effective techniques for carrying out this activity are has been an aspiration of experimental software engineering researchers for years. This paper reports a controlled experiment evaluating the effectiveness of two unit testing techniques (the functional testing technique known as equivalence partitioning (EP) and the control-flow structural testing technique known as branch testing (BT)). This experiment is a literal replication of Juristo et al. (2013). Both experiments serve the purpose of determining whether the effectiveness of BT and EP varies depending on whether or not the faults are visible for the technique (InScope or OutScope, respectively). We have used the materials, design and procedures of the original experiment, but in order to adapt the experiment to the context we have: (1) reduced the number of studied techniques from 3 to 2; (2) assigned subjects to experimental groups by means of stratified randomization to balance the influence of programming experience; (3) localized the experimental materials and (4) adapted the training duration. We ran the replication at the Escuela Polite?cnica del Eje?rcito Sede Latacunga (ESPEL) as part of a software verification & validation course. The experimental subjects were 23 master?s degree students. EP is more effective than BT at detecting InScope faults. The session/program and group variables are found to have significant effects. BT is more effective than EP at detecting OutScope faults. The session/program and group variables have no effect in this case. The results of the replication and the original experiment are similar with respect to testing techniques. There are some inconsistencies with respect to the group factor. They can be explained by small sample effects. The results for the session/program factor are inconsistent for InScope faults. We believe that these differences are due to a combination of the fatigue effect and a technique x program interaction. Although we were able to reproduce the main effects, the changes to the design of the original experiment make it impossible to identify the causes of the discrepancies for sure. We believe that further replications closely resembling the original experiment should be conducted to improve our understanding of the phenomena under study.

A flexible open source web platform to facilitate Learning Object evaluation

Systematic evaluation of Learning Objects is essential to make high quality Web-based education possible. For this reason, several educational repositories and e-Learning systems have developed their own evaluation models and tools. However, the differences of the context in which Learning Objects are produced and consumed suggest that no single evaluation model is sufficient for all scenarios. Besides, no much effort has been put in developing open tools to facilitate Learning Object evaluation and use the quality information for the benefit of end users. This paper presents LOEP, an open source web platform that aims to facilitate Learning Object evaluation in different scenarios and educational settings by supporting and integrating several evaluation models and quality metrics. The work exposed in this paper shows that LOEP is capable of providing Learning Object evaluation to e-Learning systems in an open, low cost, reliable and effective way. Possible scenarios where LOEP could be used to implement quality control policies and to enhance search engines are also described. Finally, we report the results of a survey conducted among reviewers that used LOEP, showing that they perceived LOEP as a powerful and easy to use tool for evaluating Learning Objects.

Logarithmical hopping encoding: a low computational complexity algorithm for image compression

LHE (logarithmical hopping encoding) is a computationally efficient image compression algorithm that exploits the Weber–Fechner law to encode the error between colour component predictions and the actual value of such components. More concretely, for each pixel, luminance and chrominance predictions are calculated as a function of the surrounding pixels and then the error between the predictions and the actual values are logarithmically quantised. The main advantage of LHE is that although it is capable of achieving a low-bit rate encoding with high quality results in terms of peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and image quality metrics with full-reference (FSIM) and non-reference (blind/referenceless image spatial quality evaluator), its time complexity is O( n) and its memory complexity is O(1). Furthermore, an enhanced version of the algorithm is proposed, where the output codes provided by the logarithmical quantiser are used in a pre-processing stage to estimate the perceptual relevance of the image blocks. This allows the algorithm to downsample the blocks with low perceptual relevance, thus improving the compression rate. The performance of LHE is especially remarkable when the bit per pixel rate is low, showing much better quality, in terms of PSNR and FSIM, than JPEG and slightly lower quality than JPEG-2000 but being more computationally efficient.

Estudio empírico de la influencia de la experiencia y del conocimiento del dominio del analista en la efectividad de la educción de requisitos

Contexto: La presente tesis doctoral se enmarca en la actividad de educción de los requisitos. La educción de requisitos es generalmente aceptada como una de las actividades más importantes dentro del proceso de Ingeniería de Requisitos, y tiene un impacto directo en la calidad del software. Es una actividad donde la comunicación entre los involucrados (analistas, clientes, usuarios) es primordial. La efectividad y eficacia del analista en la compresión de las necesidades de clientes y usuarios es un factor crítico para el éxito del desarrollo de software. La literatura se ha centrado principalmente en estudiar y comprender un conjunto específico de capacidades o habilidades personales que debe poseer el analista para realizar de forma efectiva la actividad de educción. Sin embargo, existen muy pocos trabajos que han estudiado dichas capacidades o habilidades empíricamente. Objetivo: La presente investigación tiene por objetivo estudiar el efecto de la experiencia, el conocimiento acerca del dominio y la titulación académica que poseen los analistas en la efectividad del proceso de educción de los requisitos, durante los primeros contactos del analista con el cliente. Método de Investigación: Hemos ejecutado 8 estudios empíricos entre cuasi-experimentos (4) y experimentos controlados (4). Un total de 110 sujetos experimentales han participado en los estudios, entre estudiantes de post-grado de la Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Informáticos de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid y profesionales. La tarea experimental consistió en realizar sesiones de educción de requisitos sobre uno o más dominios de problemas (de carácter conocido y desconocido para los sujetos). Las sesiones de educción se realizaron empleando la entrevista abierta. Finalizada la entrevista, los sujetos reportaron por escrito toda la información adquirida. Resultados: Para dominios desconocidos, la experiencia (entrevistas, requisitos, desarrollo y profesional) del analista no influye en su efectividad. En dominios conocidos, la experiencia en entrevistas (r = 0.34, p-valor = 0.080) y la experiencia en requisitos (r = 0.22, p-valor = 0.279), ejercen un efecto positivo. Esto es, los analistas con más años de experiencia en entrevistas y/o requisitos tienden a alcanzar mejores efectividades. Por el contrario, la experiencia en desarrollo (r = -0.06, p-valor = 0.765) y la experiencia profesional (r = -0.35, p-valor = 0.077), tienden a ejercer un efecto nulo y negativo, respectivamente. En lo que respecta al conocimiento acerca del dominio del problema que poseen los analistas, ejerce un moderado efecto positivo (r=0.31), estadísticamente significativo (p-valor = 0.029) en la efectividad de la actividad de educción. Esto es, los analistas con conocimiento tienden a ser más efectivos en los dominios de problema conocidos. En lo que respecta a la titulación académica, por falta de diversidad en las titulaciones académicas de los sujetos experimentales no es posible alcanzar una conclusión. Hemos podido explorar el efecto de la titulación académica en sólo dos cuasi-experimentos, sin embargo, nuestros resultados arrojan efectos contradictorios (r = 0.694, p-valor = 0.51 y r = -0.266, p-valor = 0.383). Además de las variables estudiadas indicadas anteriormente, hemos confirmado la existencia de variables moderadoras que afectan a la actividad de educción, tales como el entrevistado o la formación. Nuestros datos experimentales confirman que el entrevistado es un factor clave en la actividad de educción. Estadísticamente ejerce una influencia significativa en la efectividad de los analistas (p-valor= 0.000). La diferencia entre entrevistar a uno u otro entrevistado, en unidades naturales, varía entre un 18% - 23% en efectividad. Por otro lado, la formación en requisitos aumenta considerablemente la efectividad de los analistas. Los sujetos que realizaron la educción de requisitos después de recibir una formación específica en requisitos tienden a ser entre un 12% y 20% más efectivos que aquellos que no la recibieron. El efecto es significativo (p-valor = 0.000). Finalmente, hemos observado tres hechos que podrían influir en los resultados de esta investigación. En primer lugar, la efectividad de los analistas es diferencial dependiendo del tipo de elemento del dominio. En dominios conocidos, los analistas con experiencia tienden a adquirir más conceptos que los analistas noveles. En los dominios desconocidos, son los procesos los que se adquieren de forma prominente. En segundo lugar, los analistas llegan a una especie de “techo de cristal” que no les permite adquirir más información. Es decir, el analista sólo reconoce (parte de) los elementos del dominio del problema mencionado. Este hecho se observa tanto en el dominio de problema desconocido como en el conocido, y parece estar relacionado con el modo en que los analistas exploran el dominio del problema. En tercer lugar, aunque los años de experiencia no parecen predecir cuán efectivo será un analista, sí parecen asegurar que un analista con cierta experiencia, en general, tendrá una efectividad mínima que será superior a la efectividad mínima de los analistas con menos experiencia. Conclusiones: Los resultados obtenidos muestran que en dominios desconocidos, la experiencia por sí misma no determina la efectividad de los analistas de requisitos. En dominios conocidos, la efectividad de los analistas se ve influenciada por su experiencia en entrevistas y requisitos, aunque sólo parcialmente. Otras variables influyen en la efectividad de los analistas, como podrían ser las habilidades débiles. El conocimiento del dominio del problema por parte del analista ejerce un efecto positivo en la efectividad de los analistas, e interacciona positivamente con la experiencia incrementando aún más la efectividad de los analistas. Si bien no fue posible obtener conclusiones sólidas respecto al efecto de la titulación académica, si parece claro que la formación específica en requisitos ejerce una importante influencia positiva en la efectividad de los analistas. Finalmente, el analista no es el único factor relevante en la actividad de educción. Los clientes/usuarios (entrevistados) también juegan un rol importante en el proceso de generación de información. ABSTRACT Context: This PhD dissertation addresses requirements elicitation activity. Requirements elicitation is generally acknowledged as one of the most important activities of the requirements process, having a direct impact in the software quality. It is an activity where the communication among stakeholders (analysts, customers, users) is paramount. The analyst’s ability to effectively understand customers/users’ needs represents a critical factor for the success of software development. The literature has focused on studying and comprehending a specific set of personal skills that the analyst must have to perform requirements elicitation effectively. However, few studies have explored those skills from an empirical viewpoint. Goal: This research aims to study the effects of experience, domain knowledge and academic qualifications on the analysts’ effectiveness when performing requirements elicitation, during the first stages of analyst-customer interaction. Research method: We have conducted eight empirical studies, quasi-experiments (four) and controlled experiments (four). 110 experimental subjects participated, including: graduate students with the Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Informáticos of the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, as well as researchers and professionals. The experimental tasks consisted in elicitation sessions about one or several problem domains (ignorant and/or aware for the subjects). Elicitation sessions were conducted using unstructured interviews. After each interview, the subjects reported in written all collected information. Results: In ignorant domains, the analyst’s experience (interviews, requirements, development and professional) does not influence her effectiveness. In aware domains, interviewing experience (r = 0.34, p-value = 0.080) and requirements experience (r = 0.22, p-value = 0.279), make a positive effect, i.e.: the analysts with more years of interviewing/requirements experience tend to achieve higher effectiveness. On the other hand, development experience (r = -0.06, p-value = 0.765) and professional experience (r = -0.35, p-value = 0.077) tend to make a null and negative effect, respectively. On what regards the analyst’s problem domain knowledge, it makes a modest positive effect (r=0.31), statistically significant (p-value = 0.029) on the effectiveness of the elicitation activity, i.e.: the analysts with tend to be more effective in problem domains they are aware of. On what regards academic qualification, due to the lack of diversity in the subjects’ academic degrees, we cannot come to a conclusion. We have been able to explore the effect of academic qualifications in two experiments; however, our results show opposed effects (r = 0.694, p-value = 0.51 y r = -0.266, p-value = 0.383). Besides the variables mentioned above, we have confirmed the existence of moderator variables influencing the elicitation activity, such as the interviewee and the training. Our data confirm that the interviewee is a key factor in the elicitation activity; it makes statistically significant effect on analysts’ effectiveness (p-value = 0.000). Interviewing one or another interviewee represents a difference in effectiveness of 18% - 23%, in natural units. On the other hand, requirements training increases to a large extent the analysts’ effectiveness. Those subjects who performed requirements elicitation after specific training tend to be 12% - 20% more effective than those who did not receive training. The effect is statistically significant (p-value = 0.000). Finally, we have observed three phenomena that could have an influence on the results of this research. First, the analysts’ effectiveness differs depending on domain element types. In aware domains, experienced analysts tend to capture more concepts than novices. In ignorant domains, processes are identified more frequently. Second, analysts get to a “glass ceiling” that prevents them to acquire more information, i.e.: analysts only identify (part of) the elements of the problem domain. This fact can be observed in both the ignorant and aware domains. Third, experience years do not look like a good predictor of how effective an analyst will be; however, they seem to guarantee that an analyst with some experience years will have a higher minimum effectiveness than the minimum effectiveness of analysts with fewer experience years. Conclusions: Our results point out that experience alone does not explain analysts’ effectiveness in ignorant domains. In aware domains, analysts’ effectiveness is influenced the experience in interviews and requirements, albeit partially. Other variables influence analysts’ effectiveness, e.g.: soft skills. The analysts’ problem domain knowledge makes a positive effect in analysts’ effectiveness; it positively interacts with the experience, increasing even further analysts’ effectiveness. Although we could not obtain solid conclusions on the effect of the academic qualifications, it is plain clear that specific requirements training makes a rather positive effect on analysts’ effectiveness. Finally, the analyst is not the only relevant factor in the elicitation activity. The customers/users (interviewees) play also an important role in the information generation process.

Phrase-based statistical machine translation: explanation of its processes and statistical models and evaluation of the English to Spanish translations produced

Statistical machine translation (SMT) is an approach to Machine Translation (MT) that uses statistical models whose parameter estimation is based on the analysis of existing human translations (contained in bilingual corpora). From a translation student’s standpoint, this dissertation aims to explain how a phrase-based SMT system works, to determine the role of the statistical models it uses in the translation process and to assess the quality of the translations provided that system is trained with in-domain goodquality corpora. To that end, a phrase-based SMT system based on Moses has been trained and subsequently used for the English to Spanish translation of two texts related in topic to the training data. Finally, the quality of this output texts produced by the system has been assessed through a quantitative evaluation carried out with three different automatic evaluation measures and a qualitative evaluation based on the Multidimensional Quality Metrics (MQM).

The importance of collaborative frontloading in automotive supply networks

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate how research and development (R&D) collaboration takes place for complex new products in the automotive sector. The research aims to give guidelines to increase the effectiveness of such collaborations. Design/methodology/approach – The methodology used to investigate this issue was grounded theory. The empirical data were collected through a mixture of interviews and questionnaires. The resulting inducted conceptual models were subsequently validated in industrial workshops. Findings – The findings show that frontloading of the collaborative members was a major issue in managing successful R&D collaborations. Research limitations/implications – The limitation of this research is that it is only based in the German automotive industry. Practical implications – Practical implications have come out of this research. Models and guidelines are given to help make a success of collaborative projects and their potential impacts on time, cost and quality metrics. Originality/value – Frontloading is not often studied in a collaborative manner; it is normally studied within just one organisation. This study has novel value because it has involved a number of different members throughout the supplier network.

Perceptual differences of marketing journals:a worldwide perspective

The practice of evaluating faculty and business schools based on their journal publications has increased the emphasis on research output in peer reviewed journals. Since journal standings are a frequently debated issue, this study seeks to examine the perceptual differences of journals between different segments of marketing academics. Based on a worldwide online survey, journals are assessed in terms of four subjective quality metrics: journal familiarity, average rank position, percent of respondents who classify a journal as top tier, and readership. It is demonstrated that an individual's geographic origin, research interests or journal affiliation can have a significant impact on journal rankings.

How do statisticians perceive statistics journals?

Since researchers and academic institutions are increasingly evaluated based on their publication record in peer reviewed journals, it is crucial to assess how the statistics community perceives statistics journals. This study presents four subjective quality metrics of statistics journals as expressed by different segments of statisticians. Based on a worldwide sample of 2,190 statisticians, our findings indicate that the research interest and geographic origin of the researcher have a significant impact on journal perceptions, which are highly correlated with a journal's total number of citations.

A framework for evaluating semantic metadata

Because poor quality semantic metadata can destroy the effectiveness of semantic web technology by hampering applications from producing accurate results, it is important to have frameworks that support their evaluation. However, there is no such framework developedto date. In this context, we proposed i) an evaluation reference model, SemRef, which sketches some fundamental principles for evaluating semantic metadata, and ii) an evaluation framework, SemEval, which provides a set of instruments to support the detection of quality problems and the collection of quality metrics for these problems. A preliminary case study of SemEval shows encouraging results.

Requirements Management and Acquisition Management experiences in Spanish Public Administrations

As a part of the activities of the first Symposium on Process Improvement Models and Software Quality of the Spanish Public Administration, working groups were formed to discuss the current state of the Requirements Management and Supplier Agreement Management processes. This article presents general results and main contributions of those working groups. The results have allowed the obtention of a preliminary appraisal of the current state of these two processes in the Spanish Public Administration.

Visualisation of bioinformatics datasets

Analysing the molecular polymorphism and interactions of DNA, RNA and proteins is of fundamental importance in biology. Predicting functions of polymorphic molecules is important in order to design more effective medicines. Analysing major histocompatibility complex (MHC) polymorphism is important for mate choice, epitope-based vaccine design and transplantation rejection etc. Most of the existing exploratory approaches cannot analyse these datasets because of the large number of molecules with a high number of descriptors per molecule. This thesis develops novel methods for data projection in order to explore high dimensional biological dataset by visualising them in a low-dimensional space. With increasing dimensionality, some existing data visualisation methods such as generative topographic mapping (GTM) become computationally intractable. We propose variants of these methods, where we use log-transformations at certain steps of expectation maximisation (EM) based parameter learning process, to make them tractable for high-dimensional datasets. We demonstrate these proposed variants both for synthetic and electrostatic potential dataset of MHC class-I. We also propose to extend a latent trait model (LTM), suitable for visualising high dimensional discrete data, to simultaneously estimate feature saliency as an integrated part of the parameter learning process of a visualisation model. This LTM variant not only gives better visualisation by modifying the project map based on feature relevance, but also helps users to assess the significance of each feature. Another problem which is not addressed much in the literature is the visualisation of mixed-type data. We propose to combine GTM and LTM in a principled way where appropriate noise models are used for each type of data in order to visualise mixed-type data in a single plot. We call this model a generalised GTM (GGTM). We also propose to extend GGTM model to estimate feature saliencies while training a visualisation model and this is called GGTM with feature saliency (GGTM-FS). We demonstrate effectiveness of these proposed models both for synthetic and real datasets. We evaluate visualisation quality using quality metrics such as distance distortion measure and rank based measures: trustworthiness, continuity, mean relative rank errors with respect to data space and latent space. In cases where the labels are known we also use quality metrics of KL divergence and nearest neighbour classifications error in order to determine the separation between classes. We demonstrate the efficacy of these proposed models both for synthetic and real biological datasets with a main focus on the MHC class-I dataset.

An algorithm for FHR estimation from foetal phonocardiographic signals

The long-term foetal surveillance is often to be recommended. Hence, the fully non-invasive acoustic recording, through maternal abdomen, represents a valuable alternative to the ultrasonic cardiotocography. Unfortunately, the recorded heart sound signal is heavily loaded by noise, thus the determination of the foetal heart rate raises serious signal processing issues. In this paper, we present a new algorithm for foetal heart rate estimation from foetal phonocardiographic recordings. A filtering is employed as a first step of the algorithm to reduce the background noise. A block for first heart sounds enhancing is then used to further reduce other components of foetal heart sound signals. A complex logic block, guided by a number of rules concerning foetal heart beat regularity, is proposed as a successive block, for the detection of most probable first heart sounds from several candidates. A final block is used for exact first heart sound timing and in turn foetal heart rate estimation. Filtering and enhancing blocks are actually implemented by means of different techniques, so that different processing paths are proposed. Furthermore, a reliability index is introduced to quantify the consistency of the estimated foetal heart rate and, based on statistic parameters; [,] a software quality index is designed to indicate the most reliable analysis procedure (that is, combining the best processing path and the most accurate time mark of the first heart sound, provides the lowest estimation errors). The algorithm performances have been tested on phonocardiographic signals recorded in a local gynaecology private practice from a sample group of about 50 pregnant women. Phonocardiographic signals have been recorded simultaneously to ultrasonic cardiotocographic signals in order to compare the two foetal heart rate series (the one estimated by our algorithm and the other provided by cardiotocographic device). Our results show that the proposed algorithm, in particular some analysis procedures, provides reliable foetal heart rate signals, very close to the reference cardiotocographic recordings. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Evaluating techniques to improve visual performance with and assessment of premium intraocular lenses

Premium Intraocular Lenses (IOLs) such as toric IOLs, multifocal IOLs (MIOLs) and accommodating IOLs (AIOLs) can provide better refractive and visual outcomes compared to standard monofocal designs, leading to greater levels of post-operative spectacle independence. The principal theme of this thesis relates to the development of new assessment techniques that can help to improve future premium IOL design. IOLs designed to correct astigmatism form the focus of the first part of the thesis. A novel toric IOL design was devised to decrease the effect of toric rotation on patient visual acuity, but found to have neither a beneficial or detrimental impact on visual acuity retention. IOL tilt, like rotation, may curtail visual performance; however current IOL tilt measurement techniques require the use of specialist equipment not readily available in most ophthalmological clinics. Thus a new idea that applied Pythagoras’s theory to digital images of IOL optic symmetricality in order to calculate tilt was proposed, and shown to be both accurate and highly repeatable. A literature review revealed little information on the relationship between IOL tilt, decentration and rotation and so this was examined. A poor correlation between these factors was found, indicating they occur independently of each other. Next, presbyopia correcting IOLs were investigated. The light distribution of different MIOLs and an AIOL was assessed using perimetry, to establish whether this could be used to inform optimal IOL design. Anticipated differences in threshold sensitivity between IOLs were not however found, thus perimetry was concluded to be ineffective in mapping retinal projection of blur. The observed difference between subjective and objective measures of accommodation, arising from the influence of pseudoaccommodative factors, was explored next to establish how much additional objective power would be required to restore the eye’s focus with AIOLs. Blur tolerance was found to be the key contributor to the ocular depth of focus, with an approximate dioptric influence of 0.60D. Our understanding of MIOLs may be limited by the need for subjective defocus curves, which are lengthy and do not permit important additional measures to be undertaken. The use of aberrometry to provide faster objective defocus curves was examined. Although subjective and objective measures related well, the peaks of the MIOL defocus curve profile were not evident with objective prediction of acuity, indicating a need for further refinement of visual quality metrics based on ocular aberrations. The experiments detailed in the thesis evaluate methods to improve visual performance with toric IOLs. They also investigate new techniques to allow more rapid post-operative assessment of premium IOLs, which could allow greater insights to be obtained into several aspects of visual quality, in order to optimise future IOL design and ultimately enhance patient satisfaction.

Macroinvertebrate abundance in tropical Andean streams, Ecuador

Deforestation in the tropical Andes is affecting ecological conditions of streams, and determination of how much forest should be retained is a pressing task for conservation, restoration and management strategies. We calculated and analyzed eight benthic metrics (structural, compositional and water quality indices) and a physical-chemical composite index with gradients of vegetation cover to assess the effects of deforestation on macroinvertebrate communities and water quality of 23 streams in southern Ecuadorian Andes. Using a geographical information system (GIS), we quantified vegetation cover at three spatial scales: the entire catchment, the riparian buffer of 30 m width extending the entire stream length, and the local scale defined for a stream reach of 100 m in length and similar buffer width. Macroinvertebrate and water quality metrics had the strongest relationships with vegetation cover at catchment and riparian scales, while vegetation cover did not show any association with the macroinvertebrate metrics at local scale. At catchment scale, the water quality metrics indicate that ecological condition of Andean streams is good when vegetation cover is over 70%. Further, macroinvertebrate community assemblages were more diverse and related in catchments largely covered by native vegetation (>70%). Overall, our results suggest that retaining an important quantity of native vegetation cover within the catchments and a linkage between headwater and riparian forests help to maintain and improve stream biodiversity and water quality in Andean streams affected by deforestation. Also, this research proposes that a strong regulation focused to the management of riparian buffers can be successful when decision making is addressed to conservation/restoration of Andean catchments.