栽培和施肥模式对黄土区旱地土壤微生物量及可溶性有机碳、氮的影响

以黄土高原南部地区的两个定位试验为基础,研究了旱地不同栽培和施肥模式对土壤微生物量碳、氮和可溶性有机碳、氮的影响。结果表明,秸秆覆盖显著提高土壤微生物量氮(SMBN)含量,地膜覆盖使SMBN含量显著降低;秸秆和地膜覆盖显著降低小麦拔节期和灌浆期土壤可溶性有机氮(SON)含量。适量施用化学氮肥(120kg/hm2)有利于小麦生长后期SMBN含量的升高,而过量施用(240 kg/hm2)显著降低SMBN含量。与不施肥处理相比,土地经长期撂荒后0-10 cm土层SMBC,SMBN,SOC和SON含量显著提高;氮磷钾配施有机肥显著提高小麦各生育期0-10,10-20 cm土层SMBC,SMBN,SOC和SON的含量;单施氮磷钾肥对土壤SMBC,SMBN含量无明显影响,提高土壤SOC,SON的平均含量。土壤SMBC,SMBN,SOC和SON含量两两之间呈极显著正相关关系,四者含量与土壤有机碳、全氮含量间的正相关关系也达显著或极显著水平。

次生植被土壤碳、氮养分季节动态及凋落物输入与温度的影响

土壤微生物量、可溶性有机碳与氮虽然只占土壤有机碳、氮总量的较小部分，但可以在土壤全碳、氮变化之前反映土壤微小的变化，又直接参与土壤生物化学转化过程，因而在植被恢复过程中，较其它土壤理化性质等能够更好地指示土壤恢复情况。在青藏高原东缘存在大面积的次生人工林替代灌丛或采伐迹地，而关于这些人工林替代后的生态效果和生态过程的评估却十分缺乏，本研究通过评估岷江上游植被恢复重建过程中典型人工替代次生植被凋落物层与土壤碳、氮等养分大小，动态监测土壤微生物生物量、水溶性碳、氮等指标，结合温度与凋落物输入等影响土壤活性有机碳、氮因子的控制试验，系统分析不同人工替代次生植被土壤碳、氮等养分的差异原因，试图寻找低效人工林优化调控与持续管理技术，为区域生态公益林持续管理提供理论和技术依据。主要结论如下： 1. 通过对不同人工替代次生植被凋落物层和土壤碳、氮分析发现，油松和华山松人工林替代次生灌丛后土壤碳、氮含量较灌丛和阔叶人工林低，主要原因可能为凋落物质量(C/N)较差，而引起碳、氮等元素难以归还土壤。进而通过对不同人工替代次生植被凋落物层和土壤微生物生物量、水溶性有机碳、氮等指标的季节性动态模式的分析，发现各次生植被土壤微生物生物量C、N，P以及土壤水溶性碳、氮含量均呈明显季节性动态，呈现秋季明显大于其它季节，冬季最低，在表层土壤最为明显。 2. 油松、华山松人工林凋落物层和土壤水溶性有机碳(WDOC)、土壤水溶性有机氮(WDON)明显低于灌丛和连香树，土壤微生物生物量C、N也以油松和华山松人工林最低，而落叶类植被，如灌丛、连香树和落叶松之间没有明显差异，说明可利用底物的数量和质量差异是影响各次生植被凋落物分解和土壤微生物活性的主要原因。MBC/OC和MBN/ON能较好地指示土壤微生物活性的变化，MBC/OC凋落层总体以灌丛和连香树人工林最高，油松和华山松人工林最低；而土壤中MBC/OC连香树人工最高，华山松人工林最低。说明以油松和华山松为主的人工造林替代乡土阔叶灌丛造成土壤C、N等养分严重匮乏，微生物活性低下是影响其养分周转的主要原因。 3. 从各次生植被凋落物产生看，凋落物年归还量最大的为华山松人工林(5.1×103 kg ha-1)，其次为落叶松人工林(4.8×103 kg ha-1)，阔叶灌丛林地凋落物产生总量(4.4×103 kg ha-1)略大于油松人工林(4.2×103 kg ha-1)，最小的为连香树人工林(3.6×103 kg ha-1)；叶是凋落物的主体，落叶类树种月动态表现为单峰型，高峰主要在10-11月，如落叶松、连香树和灌丛林；常绿的松类月动态不明显，各月基本相同，最为明显地为油松林，华山松人工林略有二个小峰，分别出现在11月和5月。落叶阔叶灌丛的凋落物分解速率大于常绿针叶林，如油松和华山松。结合凋落物的产生量和分解速率，不同树种人工林替代次生阔叶灌丛后，人工油松和华山松林枯落物总贮量和厚度明显大于落叶松人工林、灌丛林和连香树人工林，说明以油松和华山松为主的人工造林替代乡土阔叶灌丛延缓了有机物向土壤的顺利归还，不利于土壤C、N等养分循环。 4. 通过控制地面凋落物和地下根系输入有机物对土壤碳、氮的影响研究发现，(1) 单独去除根系以及根系与地面凋落物同时去除处理1年后对表层(0-10cm)土壤WDOC均没有显著影响，而土壤WDON显著增加，油松人工林土壤微生物生物量C、N显著降低，人工落叶松林没有显著差异，说明油松人工林土壤微生物活性对地下碳输入的依赖大于其它次生植被，而落叶松土壤微生物活性对地下碳输入依赖性较小；去除地面凋落物，明显降低了落叶松人工林土壤WDOC，华山松和连香树土壤WDON均较对照显著减少，油松人工林土壤微生物量C较对照显著减少；双倍增加地面凋落物处理对土壤微生物生物量、WDOC和WDON没有明显地增加，相反，连香树、华山松和油松人工林土壤WDON较对照减少。说明油松人工林微生物活性不仅依赖于地下碳输入，而且对地上有机物输入的依赖性也较大；连香树、落叶松和华山松人工林土壤微生物生物量并没有因地面凋落物的去除减少可能与土壤总有机碳含量及活性均较高有关，而双倍增加地面凋落物反而降低了土壤微生物生物量，说明凋落物覆盖后改变了土壤微气候。 5. 碳矿化累积量与有机碳含量和活性有机碳含量之间存在显著地正相关关系。凋落物碳累积矿化量、矿化速率以连香树最高，油松和华山松人工林次之，落叶阔叶灌丛低于常绿针叶纯林，导致其差异的主要原因可能为凋落物产生的时间动态模式不一样，致使凋落物起始分解时间不一致。而土壤层有机碳矿化速率和矿化量以阔叶落叶灌丛和连香树最高，油松和华山松人工土壤最低，再次证实利用针叶纯林恢复植被阻碍了有机质周转与循环。 6. 凋落物累积矿化量与C/N值呈显著地相关关系，并随着温度的升高而明显增加，而土壤累积矿化量与C/N值没有显著相关关系，说明土壤有机碳质量(C/N)对温度的响应不十分明显。通过双指数模型对不同温度下碳矿化过程进行模拟和计算出活性有机碳与惰性有机碳比例，发现温度升高促进了惰性有机碳向活性有机碳的转化，增加了活性有机碳含量，说明温度升高可促进次生植被凋落物与土壤有机质的分解，进而可影响到林地碳源/汇关系的变化。 综上，通过对不同人工替代次生植被凋落物与土壤C、N大小、以及土壤微生物生物量、水溶性C、N等指标动态变化模式研究，结合温度与凋落物数量输入等影响土壤活性C、N因子的综合分析，以油松和华山松人工纯林对山地植被恢复，延缓或阻碍了有机质周转与循环，造成了土壤肥力退化。对现有低效人工纯林改造，应为地面大量有机物分解创造条件。 Although soil microbial biomass, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) are a small part of total soil organic carbon and nitrogen, they can directly participate in the process of soil biochemical translation and indicate the fine changes before changes of soil total organic carbon and nitrogen occur. So, they are good indexes to indicate soil restoration condition during the process of vegetation rehabilitation. There are large areas of secondary vegetations which substitute for indigenous shrubs in the eastern fringe of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. However, it is not well known that the ecological effect and process after substitution by different secondary plantations. Based on comparison of soil organic and nitrogen contents in litter layer and soil under different secondary vegetations in upper reaches of Minjiang River, soil microbial biomass, DOC and DON in litter layer and soil were investigated in order to analyze the seasonal dynamic. Combining the effects of temperature, litter input and root exclusion on soil microbial biomass, DOC and DON, we also aim to understand the reason and mechanism of difference in soil carbon and nitrogen contents among different secondary vegetations. The study would contribute to comprehensively understanding C and N cycling processes and provide optimal control and sustainable technology of low-effect plantations in these regions. The results are as follows: (1) Organic carbon and nitrogen in litter layers and soil under different substitution plantations were investigated. The results showed that contents of soil organic carbon and nitrogen were lower in P. tabulaeformis (PT) and P. armandi Franch(PA) than those in native broad-leaf shrub and broad-leaf plantation. The low quality (C/N) of litter in PT and PA plantations caused carbon and nitrogen returning to soil difficultly. Seasonal dynamic of soil microbial carbon (MBC),-nitrogen (MBN),-phosphor (MBP), and WDOC and WDON showed similar pattern, which had the highest values in autumn and the lowest values in winter. (2) WDOC and WDON in litter layers and soil under PT and PA plantations were significantly lower than those in native broad-leaf shrub and Cercidiphyllum japonicum Sieb. et Zucc.(CJ). Soil MBC and MBN were also the lowest, while there were no significant differences among deciduous vegetations, i.e. native broad-leaf shrub, CJ and Larix kaempferi Lamb.(LK) plantation. The results suggested that difference in quantity and quality of available substance was main reason that affected the activity of microbe in soil and litter layer. MBC/OC and MBN/ON were good indexes to indicate the change of soil microbial activity. MBC/OC of litter had the highest value under native broad-leaf shrub and CJ plantation, and had the lowest value in PT and PA plantations, while MBC/OC of soil was the highest under CJ plantation, and was the lowest in PT and PA plantations. These results indicated that PT and PA plantations substituting for native broad-leaf shrub caused deficit of carbon and nitrogen in soil, low microbial activity was a main reason influencing the cycling and turnover of carbon and nitrogen in soil. (3) The annual litter fall production, composition, seasonal dynamic and decomposition of five typical secondary stands in upper reaches of Minjiang River were studied in this paper. The annual litter productions were: PA (5.1×103 kg ha-1), LK(4.8×103 kg ha-1), native broad-leaf shrub (4.4×103 kg ha-1), PT(4.2×103 kg ha-1)，CJ(3.6×103 kg ha-1). The litter production of leaves in five secondary vegetations occupied a higher percentage in the annual total litter production than those of other components. The litterfall was mostly producted in the cool and dry period (October-November) for deciduous vegetations and relatively equably producted in every season for evergreen coniferous vegetations. The decomposition rate of leaf litter in the broad-leaf stand was higher than those in evergreen coniferous stand. Combined with annual litter fall production and decomposition rate of leaf litter, we found that stock and depth of litter layer were significantly larger in PT and PA plantations than those in native broad-leaf shrub, LK and CJ plantations. The results confirmed that PT and PA plantations substituting for native broad-leaf shrub delayed organic matter returning to soil and hindered cycling of carbon and nitrogen again. (4) We explored plant litter removal, double litter addition, root trenching, and combining root trenching and litter removal treatments to examine the effects of above- and belowground carbon inputs on soil microbial biomass, WDOC and WDON in four secondary plantations. During the experimental period from June 2007 to July 2008, 1 year after initiation of the treatments, WDOC in soil did not vary in root trenching, and combining root trenching and litter removal treatments, while WDON in soil significantly increased compared with CK treatment. Root trenching reduced soil MBC and MBN in PT plantation, while MBC and MBN in soil did not vary in LK plantation. The rasults implied that soil microbial activity was more dependent on belowground carbon input in PT plantation than those in other secondary plantations, on the contrary, soil microbial activity in LK plantation was not dependent on belowground carbon input. Plant litter removal significantly decreased soil WDOC in LK plantation, decreased WDON in PA and CJ plantations, and also significantly reduced soil MBC in PT plantation. However, double litter addition did not increase soil microbial biomass, WDOC and WDON, on the contrary, soil WDON in CJ, PA and PT plantations were decreased. These suggested that soil microbial activity was not only dependent on belowground carbon input, but also on aboveground organic material input. Double litter addition could change the microclimate and result in the decrease of soil microbial activity in CJ, PA and PT plantations. (5) We measured carbon mineralization in a 107 days incubation experiment in 5℃,15℃ and 25℃. Carbon cumulative mineralization was positively correlated with organic matter and labile organic carbon in litter layer and soil. Cumulative carbon mineralization and mineralization rate of litter layers in PT and PA plantations were higher than that in native broad-leaf shrub. This difference between native broad-leaf shrub and coniferous plantations in cumulative carbon mineralization and mineralization rate of litter layers could be attributed to the initiating time of decomposition due to the difference in seasonal dynamic of litter fall production between two types of secondary plantations. However, cumulative carbon mineralization and mineralization rate in soil were the highest in native broad-leaf shrub and CJ plantation, and were the lowest in PT and PA plantations. This also confirmed that PT and PA plantations substituting for native broad-leaf shrub hindered the cycling and turnover of organic matter again. (6) Carbon cumulative mineralization was positively correlated with C/N in litter layer and increased with temperature increasing, while carbon cumulative mineralization was not correlated with C/N in soil. This indicated that soil organic matter quality (C/N) was insensitive to temperature. Applying bi-exponential model, we computed the percent of labile and stable carbon in different temperature incubation and found that temperature increasing would accelerate the transform from stable carbon to labile carbon and increase the percentage of labile organic carbon. This illuminated that temperature incraesing could facilitate the decomposition of litter and soil organic matter in secondary vegetations and hence affect the relationship between carbon source and sink.

岷江上游人工针叶、阔叶林土壤可溶性有机物质特征及其对凋落物分解的响应

土壤可溶性有机物质（Dissolved organic matter，DOM）作为土壤有机质的活性组分，在陆地生态系统物质循环中扮演非常重要的角色。土壤DOM的主要成分可溶性有机碳（Dissolved organic carbon，DOC）和氮（Dissolved organic nitrogen，DON）参与C、N循环过程。为深入揭示全球C、N循环过程机制，在未开展DOC和DON的地区进行相关研究是有必要的。森林土壤（包括枯枝落叶层）DOC、DON动态及调控机理的研究是目前国际上森林生态系统C、N循环研究热点之一。本研究立足于暖温带岷江上游茂县地区人工林植被，对土壤DOC和DON的库容量，季节动态及其与其它养分之间的关系进行了系统研究，旨在了解DOC和DON在该区生态系统中的重要作用，并探讨作为DOM主要来源的叶凋落物对DOC和DON的动态影响，研究有助于更加详细地了解该区生态系统C和N循环过程。本论文主要研究结论如下： 1研究了岷江上游地区两大主要土壤类型（棕壤和褐土）不同植物群落下土壤的DOC和DON含量及特征，结果表明：DOC和DON在两种土壤类型中均有库容量存在，DOC在0-10cm和10-20cm土层的含量幅度分别111.96~159.95 mg kg-1和69.02~100.84 mg kg-1。DON在0-10cm和10-20cm土层的含量幅度分别11.88~23.08 mg kg-1和4.70~10.77 mg kg-1。游离氨基酸在0-10cm和10-20cm土层的含量幅度分别0.84~1.66 mg kg-1和0.39~0.73 mg kg-1。DOC、DON与土壤中的一些养分因子表现出了显著的相关关系，共同反映了土壤的状况和质量，在该区开展DOC和DON的系统研究是有必要的。 2 对油松与连香树林地土壤DOC、DON以及其它化学指标的季节动态进行了研究，结果表明：油松与连香树林地土壤DOC和DON的季节动态变化表现了类似的规律，DOC和DON的含量均以秋季最高。DOC和DON的季节动态变化主要受凋落物生物因素的影响，但其微生物活力的生物因素以及降雨、温度等非生物因素也是控制土壤DOC和DON含量的重要因素。土壤DON在土壤中的行为不同于矿质氮，其季节动态不同于NO3--N和NH4+-N的季节动态，在研究N循环过程中，应考虑DON的变化情况。 3 对油松与连香树林地分解层和表层土壤（0-10cm）氨基酸周转动态进行了研究，结果表明：油松林地和连香树林地均以分解层的氨基酸含量高于矿质表层土壤的含量。每个取样时期，油松林地内各层次的氨基酸含量高于连香树林地内相应层次的含量。两林地各层次无机氮含量均超过了氨基酸的含量，并且室内培养30天后无机N的含量仍然高于氨基酸的含量，所以可以认为该区立地条件下无论是在有机分解层还是矿质土层植物吸收利用的氮素仍是以无机N为主。 4 松林下松针凋落物易于累积，这与松针凋落物分解缓慢有关，从而导致松林内养分周转缓慢。通过用不同性质凋落物和灌丛地土壤构建微生态系统，比较油松、辐射松、连香树、灌丛虎榛子凋落物分解对C、N循环过程的影响，结果显示油松和辐射松针叶凋落物比连香树、虎榛子凋落物分解更慢，减缓了养分循环过程。然而将针叶凋落物与阔叶凋落物混合后，油松和辐射松针叶凋落物的分解加快，C、N元素的循环过程也加速。此结果表明在松林内维持具有高质量凋落物的灌丛植被或在松林内栽植一些阔叶树种如连香树对维持和增进松树人工林的土壤肥力有重大的作用。室内培养的结果还显示添加凋落物后土壤DOC和DON的含量显著增加，表明凋落物是土壤DOM的直接来源。然而不同物种凋落物处理下土壤DOC和DON的含量有所不同，并随时间发生改变。混合凋落物处理下土壤DOC和DON的含量均高于松针凋落物单独处理下土壤DOC和DON的含量。DON是一个主要的水溶性N库，随时间的变化趋势与无机N的变化趋势不同，在土壤N循环过程中起到了中间N库的作用。 As a labile fraction of soil organic matter, dissolved organic matter (DOM) plays a very important role in material cycling of terrestrial ecosystem. The turnover of DOM is now being considered as main components in nutrient cycling. DOM mainly includes dissolved organic carbon (DOC), -nitrogen (DON), -phosphorous (DOP) and –sulfur (DOS). Among these constituents, DOC and DON directly participate in C and N cycling. It is essential to study DOC and DON dynamics and their controlling factors in the areas where no related study has ever been carried out. Study about them can provide data supports on understanding the mechanism of the global C and N cycling. DOC and DON dynamics and their controlling factors have been focused on in the research of C and N cycling of forest ecosystems. Based on forest plantations of Maoxian, Minjiang River in warm temperate zone, soil DOC and DON pool size, their seasonal dynamics, and the correlation between DOC, DON and other nutrients were studied in order to understand the importance of DOC and DON in the study area. Soil DOC and DON dynamics induced by leaf litter decomposition were also studied. The study contributed to comprehensively understanding C and N cycling processes and providing baseline data for including DOC and DON into the indices system of evaluating nutrient conditions. The results were as follows: 1 Several different plant communities under brown soil and Cinnamon soil were chosen as sampling plots. The contents and features of soil DOC and DON were evaluated. The results showed that DOC and DON were present under the two soil types. DOC contents in the top soil (0-10 cm) and the subsoil (10-20 cm) respectively varied from 111.96 mg kg-1to 159.95 mg kg-1, and 69.02 mg kg-1 to 100.84 mg kg-1. DON contents in the top soil (0-10 cm) and the subsoil (10-20 cm) respectively varied from 11.88 mg kg-1to 23.08 mg kg-1, and 4.70 mg kg-1 to 10.77 mg kg-1. Free amino acid contents in the top soil (0-10 cm) and the subsoil (10-20 cm) respectively varied from 0.84 mg kg-1to 1.66 mg kg-1, and 0.39 mg kg-1 to 0.73 mg kg-1. Significant correlations were found between DOC, DON and some nutrient indices, which together reflected soil condition and quality. It was hence essential to study DOC and DON in the study area. 2 Seasonal dynamics of DOC, DON, inorganic N, microbial biomass C and N were studied under Pinus tabulaeformis and Cercidiphyllum japonicum plantation. The results indicated that seasonal dynamics of soil DOC and DON under the two plantations performed similar change pattern, with the highest values in autumn. The seasonal dynamics of soil DOC and DON were mainly influenced by the litterfall. However, biotic factors such as soil microbial activities and abiotic factors such as precipitation and temperature also controlled the dynamics of soil DOC and DON. The seasonal dynamic of DON was different from that of NO3--N and NH4+-N, which showed that the behavioral differences between DON and inorganic nitrogen. And hence, it was proposed to include DON into soil N cycling in the study area. 3 Amino acid dynamics in Oa and topsoil (0-10 cm) under P. tabulaeformis and C. japonicum plantation were studied. The results showed that amino acid content in Oa was significantly higher than that in mineral soil. At each sampling time, significantly higher amino acid contents were found in P. tabulaeformis plantation than in C. japonicum plantation. The content of inorganic nitrogen was much higher than the content of amino acid in each sampling layer at each sampling time. After a 30-days laboratory incubation the content of amino acid was still lower than the content of inorganic nitrogen. The results implicated that the form of N absorbed by plants in these study sites were mainly inorganic nitrogen. 4 Usually needle litter is more resistant to decomposition, which leads to needle litter accumulation in pure coniferous stands and slows down the rate of nutrient circulation. By constructing microcosms with local shrubland soil and containing the four single-species (P. tabulaeformis, P. radiata, C. japonicum, Ostryopsis davidiana) litters, the decomposition rates and related C and N dynamics of needle litters and broadleaved litters during the early stage were compared. The results showed that the decomposition rates of pine needles were lower than those of broadleaved litters, which descended C and N cycling processes. However, the presence of C. japonicum or O. davidiana litter into pine needles increased the decomposition rates of pine needles and also dramatically promoted C and N cycling processes. It should be appropriate for plantation managers to consider C. japonicum as an ameliorative species or remain O. davidiana in pine plantations to improve soil conditions and help maintain soil fertility. The laboratory incubation still showed that DOC and DON contents in all litter-amended treatments were significantly higher than no litter-amended treatment, which proved that litter could be a direct source of DOM in soils. Different species litters induced different soil DOC and DON contents, which correspondingly changed over time. DOC and DON contents in mixed litter treatments were higher than those in pine needle litter treatments. As a major soluble N pool, DON developed a different changing pattern over time compared with inorganic N and played a role of interim N pool in soil N cycling.

干旱胁迫与施N条件下白刺花（Sophora davidii）幼苗生长及其适应机制

干旱环境常常由于多变的降水事件和贫瘠土壤的综合作用，表现出较低的生产力和较低的植被覆盖度。全球性的气候变暖和人类干扰必将使得干旱地区缺水现状越来越严竣。贫瘠土壤环境中已经很低的有效养分含量也将会随着干旱的扩大而越来越低。干旱与半干旱系统中不断加剧的水分与养分的缺失将严重限制植物的生长和植被的更新，必然会使得已经恶化的环境恶化速率的加快、恶化范围的加大。如何抑制这种趋势，逐步改善已经恶化的环境是现在和将来干旱系统管理者面临的主要关键问题。了解干旱系统本土植物对未来气候变化的适应机制，不仅是植物生态学研究的重要内容，也对人为调节干旱环境，改善干旱系统植被条件，提高植被覆盖度具有重要的实践意义。 本研究以干旱河谷优势灌木白刺花（Sophora davidii）为研究对象，通过两年大棚水分和施N控制实验和一个生长季野外施N半控制实验，从植物生长－生理－资源利用以及植物生长土壤环境特征入手，系统的研究了白刺花幼苗生长特性对干旱胁迫和施N的响应与适应机制，并试图探讨施N是否可调节干旱系统土壤环境，人工促进干旱条件下幼苗定居，最终贡献于促进植被更新实践。初步研究结论如下： 1）白刺花幼苗生长、生物量积累与分配以及水分利用效率对干旱胁迫和施N处理的适应白刺花幼苗株高、基径、叶片数目、叶面积、根长、生物量生产、相对含水量和水分利用效率随着干旱胁迫程度的增加而明显降低，但地下部分生物量比例和R/S随着干旱胁迫程度的增加而增加。轻度施N处理下幼苗株高、基径、叶片数目、叶片面积和生物量生产有所增加。但重度施N处理下这些生长指标表现出微弱甚至降低的趋势。严重干旱胁迫条件下，幼苗叶面积率、R/S、相对含水量和水分利用效率也以轻度施N处理为最高。 2）白刺花幼苗叶片光合生理特征对干旱胁迫和施N处理的适应叶片光合色素含量和叶片光合效率随着干旱胁迫程度的增加而显著降低，并且PS2系统在干旱胁迫条件下表现出一定程度的光损害。但是比叶面积随着干旱胁迫程度的增加而增加。在相对较好水分条件下幼苗净光合速率的降低可能是因为气孔限制作用，而严重干旱胁迫条件下非气孔限制可能是导致幼苗叶片光合速率下降的主要原因。叶片叶绿素含量、潜在光合能力、羧化效率、光合效率以及RUBP再生能力等在施N处理下得到提高，并因而改善干旱胁迫条件下光合能力和效率。虽然各荧光参数对施N处理并无显著的反应，但是干旱胁迫条件下qN和Fv/Fm在轻度施N处理下维持相对较高的水平，而两年连续处理后在严重干旱胁迫条件下幼苗叶片光合效率受到重度施N处理的抑制，并且Fv/Fm和qN也在重度施N处理下降低。 3）白刺花幼苗C、N和P积累以及N、P利用效率对干旱胁迫和施N处理的适应白刺花幼苗C、N和P的积累，P利用效率以及N和P吸收效率随干旱胁迫程度的增加而显著降低，C、N和P的分配格局也随之改变。在相同水分处理下，C、N和P的积累量、P利用效率以及N和P吸收效率在轻度施N处理下表现为较高的水平。然而，C、N和P的积累量和P利用效率在重度施N处理下不仅没有表现出显著的正效应，而且有降低的趋势。另外，在相同水分条件下白刺花幼苗N利用效率随着施N强度的增加而降低。 4）白刺花幼苗生长土壤化学与微生物特性对干旱胁迫和施N的适应白刺花幼苗生长土壤有机C、有效N和P含量也随干旱胁迫程度的增加而明显降低。干旱胁迫条件下土壤C/N、C/P、转化酶、脲酶和碱性磷酸酶活性的降低可能表明较低的N和P矿化速率。尽管微生物生物量C、N和P对一个生长季干旱胁迫处理无显著反应，但微生物生物量C和N在两年连续干旱胁迫后显著降低。土壤有机C和有效P含量在轻度施N处理下大于重度施N处理，但是有效N含量随着施N强度的增加而增加。微生物生物量C和N、碱性磷酸酶和转化酶活性也在轻度施N处理下有所增加。但是碱性磷酸酶活性在重度施N处理下降低。 5）野外条件下白刺花幼苗生长特征及生长土壤生化特性对施N的适应植物生长、生物生产量、C的固定、N、P等资源的吸收和积累、其它受限资源的利用效率（如P）在轻度施N处理下均有所增加，但N利用效率有所降低。幼苗生物生产量及C、N和P等资源的分配格局在轻度施N处理下也没有明显的改变。白刺花幼苗叶片数目、生物生产量和C、N、P的积累量在重度施N处理下虽然也相对于对照有所增加，但幼苗根系长度显著降低。生物量及资源（生物量、C、N、P）在重度施N处理下较多地分配给地上部分（主要是叶片）。另外，土壤有机C、全N和有效N含量随外源施N的增加而显著增加，土壤pH随之降低，但土壤全P含量并无显著反应。其中有机C含量和有效P含量以轻度施N处理最高。微生物生物量C、N和P在轻度施N处理下也显著增加，而微生物生物量C在重度施N处理下显著降低。同时，转化酶、脲酶、碱性磷酸酶和中性磷酸酶活性在施N处理下也明显的提高，但酸性磷酸酶和过氧化氢酶活性显著降低，其中碱性磷酸酶和中性磷酸酶活性以轻度施N处理最高。 综合分析表明，干旱河谷水分和N严重限制了白刺花幼苗的生长。施N不能完全改变干旱胁迫对白刺花幼苗的抑制的作用，但是由于施N增加土壤N有效性，改善土壤一系列生物与化学过程，幼苗的生长特性也对施N表现出强烈的反应，表现为植物结构与资源分配格局的改善，植物叶片光合能力与效率的提高，植物生长以及利用其他受限资源（如水分和P）的效率的增加，致使植物自身生长及其生长环境在干旱环境下得到改善。但是过度施N不仅不能起到改善干旱胁迫下植物生长环境、促进植物生长的作用，反而在土壤过程以及植物生长过程中加重干旱胁迫对植物的伤害。因此，建议在采用白刺花作为先锋种改善干旱河谷系统环境的实践中，可适当施加N以改善土壤环境，调节植物利用与分配资源的效率，促进植物定居，得到人工促进种群更新的目的。但在实践过程中也要避免过度施N。 Arid regions of the world are generally noted for their low primary productivity which is due to a combination of low, unpredictable water supply and low soil nutrient concentrations. The most serious effects of global climate change and human disturbances may well be those which related to increasing drought since drought stress has already been the principal constraint in plant growth. The decline in total rainfall and/or soil water availability expected for the next decades may turn out to be even more drastic under future warmer conditions. Nevertheless, water deficit is not the only limiting factor in arid and semiarid environments. Soils often suffer from nutrient (especially N and P) deficiencies in these ecosystems, which can also be worsened by climate change. How to improve the poor soil quality and enhance the vegetation coverage is always the problem facing ecosystem managers. The adaptive mechanisms of native plant to future climate change is always the focus in plant ecology, it also plays important roles in improving vegetation coverage by manual controlled programmes. Sophora davidii is a native perennial shrub of arid valleys, which is often predominant on eroded slopes and plays a vital role in retaining ecological stability in this region. It has been found that S. davidii was better adapted to dry environment than other shrubs, prompting its use for re-vegetation of arid lands. A two-years greenhouse experiment and a field experiment were conducted in order to understand the adaptation responses of Sophora davidii seedlings to different water and N conditions, and further explore if additional N supply as a modified role could enhance the adaptation ability of S. davidii seedlings to dry and infertile environment. Two-month old seedlings were subjected to a completely randome design with three water (80%, 40% and 20% water field capacity (FC)) and three N supply (N0: 0, Nl: 92 and Nh: 184 mg N kg-1 soil) regimes. Field experiment was arranged only by three N supplies in the dry valley. 1) The growth, biomass partitioning and water-use efficiency of Sophora davidii seedlings in respond to drought stress and N supply Seedlings height, basal diameter, leaf number, leaf area, root length, biomass production, relative water content (RWC) and WUE were decreased with increase of drought stress. An increase in below-ground biomass was observed indicating a higher root/shoot ratio (R/S) under drought stress conditions. Low N supply increased seedlings height, basal diameter, leaf number, leaf area, and biomass production, but decreased root length. In contrast, these growth characteristics showed little or negative effect to high N supply treatment. Leaf percentages increased with increase of N supply, but fine root percentages decreased. In addition, Low N supply rather than the other two N treatments increased leaf area ratio (LAR), leaf/fine root mass ratio (L/FR), R/S and RWC under severe drought stress (20%FC), even though these parameters could increase with the high N supply treatment under well-watered condition (80%FC). Moreover, Low N supply also increased WUE under three water conditions, but high N supply had little effect on WUE under drought stress conditions (40%FC and 20%FC). 2) Leaf gas exchange and fluorescence parameters of Sophora davidii seedlings in respond to drought stress and N supply Leaf area (LA), photosynthetic pigment contents, and photosynthetic efficiency were decreased with increase of drought stress, but specific leaf area (SLA) increased. Photodamage in photosystem 2 (PS2) was also observed under drought stress condition. The decreased net photosynthetic rate (PN) under relative well-watered water conditions might result from stomatal limitations, but the decreased PN under other hand, photosynthetic capacity by increasing LA, photosynthetic chlorophyll contents, Pnmax, CE, Jmax were increased with increase N supply, and photosynthetic efficiency was improved with N supply treatment under water deficit. Although N supply did a little in alleviating photodamages to PS2 caused by drought stress, low N supply enhanced qN and kept relative high Fv/Fm under drought stress condition. However, high N supply inhibited leaf photosynthetic efficiency, and declined Fv/Fm and qN under severe drought stress condition after two year continues drought stress and N supply. 3) Carbon accumulation, nitrogen and phosphorus use efficiency of Sophora davidii seedlings in respond to drought stress and N supply C, N and P accumulation, NUE , N and P uptake efficiency (NUtE and NUtE ) P N P were decreased with increase of drought stress regardless of N supply. On the other hand, the S. davidii seedlings exhibited strong responses to N supply, but the responses were inconsistent with the various N supply levels. Low N supply rather than the other two N treatments increased C, N and P accumulation, improved NUEP, NUtE and NUtE under corresponding water condition. In contrast, high N supply N P did few even depressed effects on C, N and P accumulation, and NUEP, although NUtEN and NUtEP could increase with high N supply under corresponding water conditions. Even so, a decrease of NUEN was observed with increase of N supply under corresponding water conditions. 4) Soil microbial and chemical characters in respond to drought stress and N supply The content of soil organic C, available N and P were decreased with increase of drought stress. Decreases in C/N and C/P, and invertase, urea and alkaline phosphatase activity were also observed under drought stress conditions, indicating a lower N and P mineralization rate. Although microbial biomass C, N and P showed slight responses to drought stress after one growth period treatment, microbial biomass C and N were also decreased with increase of drought stress after two year continuous treatment. The content of soil organic C and available P showed the stronger positive responses to low N supply than which to high N supply, although than the other two N treatments increased microbial biomass N and invertase activity under severe drought stress condition, even though invertase activity could increase with high N supply treatment under relative well-water conditions. Moreover, low N supply treatment also increased C/P and alkaline phosphatase activity which might result from higher P mineralization, but high N supply did negative effects on alkaline phosphatase activity. 5) The growth characteristics of Sophora davidii seedlings and soil microbial and chemical characters in respond to N supply under field condition Low N supply facilitated seedlings growth by increasing leaf number, basal diameter, root length, biomass production, C, N and P accumulation and absorption, and enhancing the use efficiency of other limited resources as P. Compared to control, however, low N supply did little effect on altering biomass, C, N and P portioning in seedlings components. On the contrary, high N supply treatment also increased leaf number, biomass and C, N and P accumulation relative to control, but significantly decreased root length, and altered more biomass and resources to above-ground, which strongly reduced the ability of absorbing water under drought condition, and thus which might deep the drought stress. In addition, N supply increased soil C, N and available N content, but declined pH and showed little effects on P content. Low N supply showed higher values of soil C and available P content. Low N supply also increased microbial biomass C, N and P, although high N supply decreased microbial biomass C. N supply significantly enhanced soil invertase, urea, alkaline and neutral phosphratase activity, while declined acid phosphratase and catalase activity. Low N supply exhibited higher alkaline and neutral phosphratase activity compared to the others. The results from this study indicated that both drought and N limited the growth of S. davidii seedlings and their biomass production. Regardless of N supply levels, drought stress dramatically reduced the seedlings growth and biomass production. Although plant growth parameters, including basal diameter, height, leaf number, and biomass and their components were observed to be positive responses to low N supply, N supply alone can not alter the diminishing tendency which is caused by drought. available N content increased with increase N supply. In addition, low N supply rather These findings imply that drought played a primary limitation role and N was only the secondary. Even so, appropriate N supply was seemed to enhance the ability that S. davidii seedlings adapted to the xeric and infertile environment by improving soil processes, stimulating plant growth, increasing recourses accumulation, enhancing use efficiency of other limited resources, and balancing biomass and resources partitioning. Appropriate N supply, therefore, would be recommended to improve S. davidii seedling establishment in this region, but excess N supply should be avoided.

Short-term effect of targeted placements of sheep excrement on grassland in inner mongolia on soil and plant parameters

Grazing animal excrement plays an important role in nutrient cycling and redistribution in grazing ecosystems, due to grazing in large areas and return in small areas. To elucidate the changes to the soil and pasture caused by sheep urine, fresh dung, and compost patches, a short- term field experiment using artificially placed pats was set up in the autumn of 2003 in the Inner Mongolian steppe. Urine application significantly increased soil pH during the first 32 days in soil layers at depths of both 0 - 5 cm and 5 - 15 cm. Rapid hydrolysis of urea gave large amounts of urine- nitrogen ( N) as ammonium ( NH4+) in soil extracts and was followed by apparent nitrification from day 2. Higher inorganic N content in the urine- treated soil was found throughout the experiment compared with the control. No significant effects of sheep excrement on soil microbial carbon ( C) and soil microbial N was found, but microbial activities significantly increased compared with the control after application of sheep excrement. Forty- six percent of dung- N and 27% of compost- N were transferred into vegetation after the experiment. The results from this study suggest that large amounts of nutrients have been lost from the returned excrement patches in the degraded grassland of Inner Mongolia, especially from sheep urine- N.

Arctic microorganisms respond more to elevated UV-B radiation than CO2

David Johnson, Colin D. Campbell, John A. Lee, Terry V. Callaghan and Dylan Gwynn-Jones (2002). Arctic microorganisms respond more to elevated UV-B radiation than CO2. Nature, 416 (6876) pp.82-83 Sponsorship: NERC / EU / Swedish Academy of Sciences RAE2008

Contenido de carbono orgánico y biomasa microbiana en un suelo sometido a distintas intensidades de cultivo

p.157-160

Use of a lux-marked rhizobacterium as a biosensor to assess changes in rhizosphere C flow due to pollutant stress

The flow of carbon from plant roots into soil supports a range of microbial processes and is therefore critical to ecosystem function and health. Pollution-induced stress, which influences rhizosphere C flow is of considerable potential importance, and therefore needs to be evaluated. This paper reports on a method, based on reporter gene technology, for quantifying pollutant effects on rhizosphere C flow. The method uses the lux-marked rhizobacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens, where bioluminescence output of this biosensor is directly correlated with the metabolic activity and reports on C flow in root exudate. Plantago lanceolata was treated with paraquat (representing a model pollutant stress) in a simple microcosm system. The lux-biosensor response correlated closely with C concentrations in the exudate and demonstrated that the pollutant stress increased the C flow from the plantago roots, 24 h after application of the herbicide. The lux-reporter system therefore potentially offers a technique for use in assessing the impact of pollutant stress on rhizosphere C flow through the soil microbial biomass.

Concentration effects of 1,2-dichlorobenzene on soil microbiology

The effect of increasing concentrations (65, 130, 325, 1,300, and 3,250 μg/g soil dry weight) of 1,2-dichlorobenzene (1,2-DCB) on the microbial biomass, metabolic potential, and diversity of culturable bacteria was investigated using soil microcosms. All doses caused a significant (p < 0.05) decrease in viable hyphal fungal length. Bacteria were more tolerant, only direct total counts in soils exposed to 3,250 μg/g were significantly (p < 0.05) lower than untreated controls, and estimates of culturable bacteria showed no response. Pseudomonads counts were stimulated by 1,2-DCB concentrations of up to 325 μg/g; above this level counts were similar to controls. Fatty acid methyl ester analysis of taxonomic bacterial composition reflected the differential response of specific genera to increasing 1,2-DCB concentrations, especially the tolerance of Bacillus to the highest concentrations. The shifts in community composition were reflected in estimates of metabolic potential assessed by carbon assimilation (Biolog) ability. Significantly fewer (p < 0.05) carbon sources were utilized by communities exposed to 1,2-DCB concentrations greater than 130 μg/g (<64 carbon sources utilized) than control soils (83); the ability to assimilate individual carbohydrates sources was especially compromised. The results of this study demonstrate that community diversity and metabolic potential can be used as effective bioindicators of pollution stress and concentration effects.

Microbial use of organic substrates and maize growth, especially in saline and alkaline soils of Pakistani Punjab

This thesis consists of 4 main parts: (1) impact of growing maize on the decomposition of incorporated fresh alfalfa residues, (2) relationships between soil biological and other soil properties in saline and alkaline arable soils from the Pakistani Punjab, (3) decomposition of compost and plant residues in Pakistani soils along a gradient in salinity, and (4) interactions of compost and triple superphosphate on the growth of maize in a saline Pakistani soil. These 4 chapters are framed by a General Introduction and a Conclusions section. (1) In the first study, the effects of growing maize plants on the microbial decomposition of freshly chopped alfalfa residues was investigated in a 90-day pot experiment using a sandy arable soil. Assuming that the addition of alfalfa residues did not affect the decomposition of native soil organic matter, only 27% of the alfalfa residues were found as CO2. This suggests that a considerable part of alfalfa-C remained undecomposed in the soil. However, only 6% of the alfalfa residues could be recovered as plant remains in treatment with solely alfalfa residues. Based on d13C values, it was calculated that plant remains in treatment maize + alfalfa residues contained 14.7% alfalfa residues and 85.3% maize root remains. This means 60% more alfalfa-C was recovered in this treatment. (2) In the second study, the interactions between soil physical, soil chemical and soil biological properties were analysed in 30 Pakistani soils from alkaline and saline arable sites differing strongly in salinisation and in soil pH. The soil biological properties were differentiated into indices for microbial activity, microbial biomass, and community structure with the aim of assessing their potential as soil fertility indices. (3) In the third study, 3 organic amendments (compost, maize straw and pea straw) were added to 5 Pakistani soils from a gradient in salinity. Although salinity has depressive effects on microbial biomass C, biomass N, biomass P, and ergosterol, the clear gradient according to the soil salt concentration was not reflected by the soil microbial properties. The addition of the 3 organic amendments always increased the contents of the microbial indices analysed. The amendment-induced increase was especially strong for microbial biomass P and reflected the total P content of the added substrates. (4) The fourth study was greenhouse pot experiment with different combinations of compost and triple superphosphate amendments to investigate the interactions between plant growth, microbial biomass formation and compost decomposition in a strongly saline Pakistani arable soil in comparison to a non-saline German arable soil. The Pakistani soil had a 2 times lower content of ergosterol, a 4 times lower contents of microbial biomass C, biomass N and biomass P, but nearly a 20 times lower content of NaHCO3 extractable P. The addition of 1% compost always had positive effects on the microbial properties and also on the content of NaHCO3 extractable P. The addition of superphosphate induced a strong and similar absolute increase in microbial biomass P in both soils.

Die mikrobielle Besiedlung von Wurzeloberfläche und Rhizosphäre in ihrer Bedeutung für Stoffumsätze in Böden

Im Vordergrund der Arbeit stand die Erfassung der mikrobiellen Biomasse bzw. Residualmasse an der Wurzeloberfläche, im Rhizosphärenboden und im umgebenden Boden. Durch den Vergleich von verschiedenen Methoden zur Erfassung der mikrobiellen Biomasse wurden die Gehalte von pilzlichem und bakteriellem Kohlenstoff an der Rhizoplane und in der Rhizosphäre quantifiziert. Dabei wurde die Fumigations-Extraktions-Methode zur Erfassung der mikrobiellen Biomasse eingesetzt. Ergosterol diente als Indikator für die pilzliche Biomasse und die Aminozucker Glucosamin und Muraminsäure sollten Aufschluss geben über die bakterielle und pilzliche Biomasse bzw. Residualmasse in den drei Probenfraktionen. Dazu wurden Umrechnungsfaktoren erstellt, die zur Berechnung des bakteriellen und pilzlichen Kohlenstoffs aus den Gehalten von Muraminsäure und Pilz-Glucosamin dienten. Die Bestimmung von Aminozuckern wurde insoweit modifiziert, dass sowohl in Boden- als auch in Wurzelhydrolysaten die Messung von Glucosamin, Galactosamin, Muraminsäure und Mannosamin gleichzeitig als automatisiertes Standardverfahren mit Hilfe der HPLC erfolgen konnte. Es wurden drei Gefäßversuche durchgeführt: Im ersten Versuch wurde der Einfluss der Pflanzenart auf die mikrobielle Besiedlung der Wurzeloberflächen untersucht. Dabei wurden Wurzeln und Rhizosphärenboden von 15 verschiedenen Pflanzenarten miteinander verglichen. Im zweiten Versuch stand der Einfluss der mikrobiellen Biomasse eines Bodens auf die mikrobielle Besiedlung von Wurzeloberflächen im Vordergrund. Deutsches Weidelgras (Lolium perenne L.) wurde auf sieben verschiedenen Böden angezogen. Bei den Böden handelte es sich um sechs Oberböden, die sich hinsichtlich des Bodentyps und der Bewirtschaftungsform voneinander unterschieden, und einen Unterboden. Im dritten Versuch wurde die mikrobielle Besiedlung von Wurzeln nach teilweiser und vollständiger Entfernung der oberirdischen Biomasse beobachtet. Welsches Weidelgras (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) wurde 24 Tage nach der Aussaat beschnitten. Anschließend wurde über einen Versuchszeitraum von acht Tagen die mikrobielle Besiedlung an den Wurzeln und in den Bodenfraktionen bestimmt. Es bestätigte sich, dass der Einfluss der einzelnen Pflanzenart von entscheidender Bedeutung für die mikrobielle Besiedlung von Wurzeln ist. Bei fast allen Pflanzen wurde die mikrobielle Biomasse an den Wurzeln von Pilzen dominiert. Das Verhältnis von pilzlichem zu bakteriellem Kohlenstoff an den Wurzeln der 15 Pflanzenarten lag im Mittel bei 2,6. Bei der Betrachtung verschiedener Böden zeigte sich, dass die mikrobielle Besiedlung in tieferen Bodenschichten signifikant niedriger ist als in den Oberböden. Dabei war der Pilzanteil an der mikrobiellen Biomasse im Unterboden deutlich erhöht. Der Vergleich der Oberböden untereinander ergab, dass sowohl der Bodentyp als auch die Bewirtschaftungsform einen signifikanten Einfluss auf mikrobielle Besiedlung ausüben. Durch die teilweise oder vollständige Entfernung der oberirdischen Biomasse wurde eine Veränderung der mikrobiellen Besiedlung an den Wurzeln beobachtet. Das Verhältnis von pilzlichem zu bakteriellem Kohlenstoff sank in dem Versuchszeitraum von 2,5 auf 1,4. Dabei war die Förderung der Pilze in der Variante mit teilweise entfernter oberirdischer Biomasse relativ größer als in der Variante mit vollständig entfernter oberirdischer Biomasse. Entgegen der weit verbreiteten Annahme, dass bei den wurzelbesiedelnden Mikroorganismen die Bakterien gegenüber den Pilzen dominieren, zeigten die Ergebnisse ein gegensätzliches Bild. In allen drei Versuchen ergab sich gleichermaßen, dass sowohl im Boden als auch an den Wurzeln die Pilze gegenüber den Bakterien dominieren.

Produktion und Nutzung von mikrobiellen Residuen als labile Zwischenspeicher für Nährstoffe

Mit dem Ziel, die Bildung und den Verbrauch von mikrobiellen Residuen zu ermitteln, wurden zwei Inkubationsversuche durchgeführt. Die Versuchsdauer betrug jeweils 67 Tage, wobei an den Tagen 5, 12, 33, 38, 45 und 67 Proben entnommen und auf Ct, Cmik, CO2 sowie die δ13C-Werte, Nt, Nmin und Ergosterol untersucht wurden. In Versuch 1 wurden als leicht umsetzbare Kohlenstoffquelle 3 mg C4-Kohlenstoff g-1Boden in Form von Rohrzucker bzw. Maiscellulose und als N-Ausgleich 200 µg NH4NO3-N g-1Boden hinzugegeben. Der verwendete Boden war ein Lößboden. In Versuch 2 wurden 3 mg C4-Kohlenstoff g-1Boden in Form von Rohrzucker und 100 µg NH4NO3-N g-1Boden in den Boden eingearbeitet. Als Substrat wurde hier ein gebrannter Lößboden verwendet. Bei beiden Versuchen erfolgte an Tag 33 nochmals eine Zugabe von 3 mg C3-Kohlenstoff g-1Boden in Form von Cellulose. Die Zugabe des C4-Kohlenstoffs führte in beiden Versuchen zu einer Zunahme des C4-Anteils in der mikrobiellen Biomasse. Insgesamt wurden im ersten Versuch ca. 78 % des C4-Kohlenstoffs und im zweiten Versuch ca. 64 % mineralisiert. In Versuch 1 wurde bei der Rohrzuckervariante der größte Teil an C4-C innerhalb der ersten 5 Tage mineralisiert, in der Cellulosevariante konnte dagegen eine geringere, aber länger anhaltende Mineralisation bis Tag 33 beobachtet werden. Dies sowie die Entwicklung des C4-C der mikrobiellen Biomasse deuten darauf hin, dass die Cellulose erst zu diesem Zeitpunkt vollständig umgesetzt war, der Rohrzucker dagegen aber schon nach 5 Inkubationstagen. Der Anteil an C4-C in den mikrobiellen Residuen lag an Tag 33 bei 28 % (Cellulosevariante) bzw. 22 % (Rohrzuckervariante) des zugegebenen C4-Kohlenstoffs. Dagegen lag im zweiten Versuch der Anteil an C4-Kohlenstoff in den mikrobiellen Residuen bei 40 %. In Versuch 1 führte die Zugabe der C3-Cellulose an Tag 33 nicht zu einem Verbrauch von mikrobiellen Residuen, im Versuch 2 hingegen zu einer signifikanten Abnahme. Der zugegebene Stickstoff wurde in beiden Versuchen durch die Zugabe des Rohrzuckers in hohen Anteilen immobilisiert, aber nur in geringem Umfang in die mikrobielle Biomasse inkorporiert. An Tag 33 lag der Anteil Stickstoff in den mikrobiellen Residuen bei 52 % (Versuch 1) bzw. 84 % (Versuch 2) des zugegebenen Stickstoffs. In Versuch 1 setzte nach 33 Tagen eine Remineralisation des immobilisierten Stickstoffs ein, unabhängig von der Zugabe der C3-Cellulose. In Versuch 2 wurde der immobilisierte Stickstoff zu keinem Zeitpunkt remineralisiert. Die Zugabe der C3-Cellulose führte hier nicht zu einer Remineralisation des immobilisierten Stickstoffs. Es bestätigte sich die Annahme, dass durch die Zugabe von leicht umsetzbaren Kohlstoffsubstraten die Bildung von mikrobiellen Residuen gesteigert werden kann. Die zweite Annahme, dass durch die Zugabe von N-freiem Substrat, hier C3-Cellulose, die mikrobiellen Residuen bevorzugt abgebaut werden, konnte nicht bestätigt werden.

Changes in amino acid enantiomers and microbial performance in soils from a subtropical mountain oasis in Oman abandoned for different periods

An important feature of maintaining the agricultural stability in millennia-old mountain oases of northern Oman is the temporary abandonment of terraces. To analyse the effects of a fallow period on soil microbial performance, i.e. microbial activity and microbial biomass, samples of eight terrace soils abandoned for different periods were collected in situ, assigned to four fallow age classes and incubated for 30 days in the laboratory after rewetting. The younger fallow age classes of 1 and 5 years were based on the records of the farmers’ recollections, the two older fallow age classes of 10–20 and 25–60 years according to the increase in the D -to- L ratio of valine and leucine enantiomers. The increase in these two ratios was in agreement with that of the D -to- L ratio of lysine. The strongest relationship was observed between the increase in the D -to- L ratio of lysine and the decrease in soil microbial biomass C. However, the most stringent coherence between the increase in fallow age and soil properties was revealed by the decreases in cumulative respiration and net N mineralisation rates with decreasing availability of substrate to soil microorganisms. During the 30-day incubation following rewetting, relative changes in microbial activity (respiration and net N mineralisation) and microbial biomass (C and N)indices were similar in the eight terrace soils on a fallow age-class-specific level, indicating that the same basic processes occurred in all of the sandy terrace soils investigated.

Composition and stability of organic matter fractions in soils under different land use regimes

Soil organic matter (SOM) vitally impacts all soil functions and plays a key role in the global carbon (C) cycle. More than 70% of the terrestric C stocks that participate in the active C cycle are stored in the soil. Therefore, quantitative knowledge of the rates of C incorporation into SOM fractions of different residence time is crucial to understand and predict the sequestration and stabilization of soil organic carbon (SOC). Consequently, there is a need of fractionation procedures that are capable of isolating functionally SOM fractions, i.e. fractions that are defined by their stability. The literature generally refers to three main mechanisms of SOM stabilization: protection of SOM from decomposition by (i) its structural composition, i.e. recalcitrance, (ii) spatial inaccessibility and/or (iii) interaction with soil minerals and metal ions. One of the difficulties in developing fractionation procedures for the isolation of functional SOM fractions is the marked heterogeneity of the soil environment with its various stabilization mechanisms – often several mechanisms operating simultaneously – in soils and soil horizons of different texture and mineralogy. The overall objective of the present thesis was to evaluate present fractionation techniques and to get a better understanding of the factors of SOM sequestration and stabilization. The first part of this study is attended to the structural composition of SOM. Using 13C cross-polarization magic-angle spinning (CPMAS) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, (i) the effect of land use on SOM composition was investigated and (ii) examined whether SOM composition contributes to the different stability of SOM in density and aggregate fractions. The second part of the present work deals with the mineral-associated SOM fraction. The aim was (iii) to evaluate the suitability of chemical fractionation procedures used in the literature for the isolation of stable SOM pools (stepwise hydrolysis, treatments using oxidizing agents like Na2S2O8, H2O2, and NaOCl as well as demineralization of the residue obtained by the NaOCl treatment using HF (NaOCl+HF)) by pool sizes, 13C and 14C data. Further, (iv) the isolated SOM fractions were compared to the inert organic matter (IOM) pool obtained for the investigated soils using the Rothamsted Carbon Model and isotope data in order to see whether the tested chemical fractionation methods produce SOM fractions capable to represent this pool. Besides chemical fractionation, (v) the suitability of thermal oxidation at different temperatures for obtaining stable SOC pools was evaluated. Finally, (vi) the short-term aggregate dynamics and the factors that impact macroaggregate formation and C stabilization were investigated by means of an incubation study using treatments with and without application of 15N labeled maize straw of different degradability (leaves and coarse roots). All treatments were conducted with and without the addition of fungicide. Two study sites with different soil properties and land managements were chosen for these investigations. The first one, located at Rotthalmünster, is a Stagnic Luvisol (silty loam) under different land use regimes. The Ah horizons of a spruce forest and continuous grassland and the Ap and E horizons of two plots with arable crops (continuous maize and wheat cropping) were examined. The soil of the second study site, located at Halle, is a Haplic Phaeozem (loamy sand) where the Ap horizons of two plots with arable crops (continuous maize and rye cropping) were investigated. Both study sites had a C3-/C4-vegetational change on the maize plot for the purpose of tracing the incorporation of the younger, maize-derived C into different SOM fractions and the calculation of apparent C turnover times of these. The Halle site is located near a train station and industrial areas, which caused a contamination with high amounts of fossil C. The investigation of aggregate and density fractions by 13C CPMAS NMR spectroscopy revealed that density fractionation isolated SOM fractions of different composition. The consumption of a considerable part (10–20%) of the easily available O-alkyl-C and the selective preservation of the more recalcitrant alkyl-C when passing from litter to the different particulate organic matter (POM) fractions suggest that density fractionation was able to isolate SOM fractions with different degrees of decomposition. The spectra of the aggregate fractions resembled those of the mineral-associated SOM fraction obtained by density fractionation and no considerable differences were observed between aggregate size classes. Comparison of plant litter, density and aggregate size fractions from soil under different land use showed that the type of land use markedly influenced the composition of SOM. While SOM of the acid forest soil was characterized by a large content (> 50%) of POM, which contained high amounts of spruce-litter derived alkyl-C, the organic matter in the biologically more active grassland and arable soils was dominated by mineral-associated SOM (> 95%). This SOM fraction comprised greater proportions of aryl- and carbonyl-C and is considered to contain a higher amount of microbially-derived organic substances. Land use can alter both, structure and stability of SOM fractions. All applied chemical treatments induced considerable SOC losses (> 70–95% of mineral-associated SOM) in the investigated soils. The proportion of residual C after chemical fractionation was largest in the arable Ap and E horizons and increased with decreasing C content in the initial SOC after stepwise hydrolysis as well as after the oxidative treatments with H2O2 and Na2S2O8. This can be expected for a functional stable pool of SOM, because it is assumed that the more easily available part of SOC is consumed first if C inputs decrease. All chemical treatments led to a preferential loss of the younger, maize-derived SOC, but this was most pronounced after the treatments with Na2S2O8 and H2O2. After all chemical fractionations, the mean 14C ages of SOC were higher than in the mineral-associated SOM fraction for both study sites and increased in the order: NaOCl < NaOCl+HF ≤ stepwise hydrolysis << H2O2 ≈ Na2S2O8. The results suggest that all treatments were capable of isolating a more stable SOM fraction, but the treatments with H2O2 and Na2S2O8 were the most efficient ones. However, none of the chemical fractionation methods was able to fit the IOM pool calculated using the Rothamsted Carbon Model and isotope data. In the evaluation of thermal oxidation for obtaining stable C fractions, SOC losses increased with temperature from 24–48% (200°C) to 100% (500°C). In the Halle maize Ap horizon, losses of the young, maize-derived C were considerably higher than losses of the older C3-derived C, leading to an increase in the apparent C turnover time from 220 years in mineral-associated SOC to 1158 years after thermal oxidation at 300°C. Most likely, the preferential loss of maize-derived C in the Halle soil was caused by the presence of the high amounts of fossil C mentioned above, which make up a relatively large thermally stable C3-C pool in this soil. This agrees with lower overall SOC losses for the Halle Ap horizon compared to the Rotthalmünster Ap horizon. In the Rotthalmünster soil only slightly more maize-derived than C3-derived SOC was removed by thermal oxidation. Apparent C turnover times increased slightly from 58 years in mineral-associated SOC to 77 years after thermal oxidation at 300°C in the Rotthalmünster Ap and from 151 to 247 years in the Rotthalmünster E horizon. This led to the conclusion that thermal oxidation of SOM was not capable of isolating SOM fractions of considerably higher stability. The incubation experiment showed that macroaggregates develop rapidly after the addition of easily available plant residues. Within the first four weeks of incubation, the maximum aggregation was reached in all treatments without addition of fungicide. The formation of water-stable macroaggregates was related to the size of the microbial biomass pool and its activity. Furthermore, fungi were found to be crucial for the development of soil macroaggregates as the formation of water-stable macroaggregates was significantly delayed in the fungicide treated soils. The C concentration in the obtained aggregate fractions decreased with decreasing aggregate size class, which is in line with the aggregate hierarchy postulated by several authors for soils with SOM as the major binding agent. Macroaggregation involved incorporation of large amounts maize-derived organic matter, but macroaggregates did not play the most important role in the stabilization of maize-derived SOM, because of their relatively low amount (less than 10% of the soil mass). Furthermore, the maize-derived organic matter was quickly incorporated into all aggregate size classes. The microaggregate fraction stored the largest quantities of maize-derived C and N – up to 70% of the residual maize-C and -N were stored in this fraction.

Salinity-induced changes in the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake added to soil

Five laboratory incubation experiments were carried out to assess the salinity-induced changes in the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake added to soil. The first laboratory experiment was carried out to prove the hypothesis that the lower content of fungal biomass in a saline soil reduces the decomposition of a complex organic substrate in comparison to a non-saline soil under acidic conditions. Three different rates (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0%) of sugarcane filter cake were added to both soils and incubated for 63 days at 30°C. In the saline control soil without amendment, cumulative CO2 production was 70% greater than in the corresponding non-saline control soil, but the formation of inorganic N did not differ between these two soils. However, nitrification was inhibited in the saline soil. The increase in cumulative CO2 production by adding filter cake was similar in both soils, corresponding to 29% of the filter cake C at all three addition rates. Also the increases in microbial biomass C and biomass N were linearly related to the amount of filter cake added, but this increase was slightly higher for both properties in the saline soil. In contrast to microbial biomass, the absolute increase in ergosterol content in the saline soil was on average only half that in the non-saline soil and it showed also strong temporal changes during the incubation: A strong initial increase after adding the filter cake was followed by a rapid decline. The addition of filter cake led to immobilisation of inorganic N in both soils. This immobilisation was not expected, because the total C-to-total N ratio of the filter cake was below 13 and the organic C-to-organic N ratio in the 0.5 M K2SO4 extract of this material was even lower at 9.2. The immobilisation was considerably higher in the saline soil than in the non-saline soil. The N immobilisation capacity of sugarcane filter cake should be considered when this material is applied to arable sites at high rations. The second incubation experiment was carried out to examine the N immobilizing effect of sugarcane filter cake (C/N ratio of 12.4) and to investigate whether mixing it with compost (C/N ratio of 10.5) has any synergistic effects on C and N mineralization after incorporation into the soil. Approximately 19% of the compost C added and 37% of the filter cake C were evolved as CO2, assuming that the amendments had no effects on the decomposition of soil organic C. However, only 28% of the added filter cake was lost according to the total C and d13C values. Filter cake and compost contained initially significant concentrations of inorganic N, which was nearly completely immobilized between day 7 and 14 of the incubation in most cases. After day 14, N re-mineralization occurred at an average rate of 0.73 µg N g-1 soil d-1 in most amendment treatments, paralleling the N mineralization rate of the non-amended control without significant difference. No significant net N mineralization from the amendment N occurred in any of the amendment treatments in comparison to the control. The addition of compost and filter cake resulted in a linear increase in microbial biomass C with increasing amounts of C added. This increase was not affected by differences in substrate quality, especially the three times larger content of K2SO4 extractable organic C in the sugarcane filter cake. In most amendment treatments, microbial biomass C and biomass N increased until the end of the incubation. No synergistic effects could be observed in the mixture treatments of compost and sugarcane filter cake. The third 42-day incubation experiment was conducted to answer the questions whether the decomposition of sugarcane filter cake also result in immobilization of nitrogen in a saline alkaline soil and whether the mixing of sugarcane filter cake with glucose (adjusted to a C/N ratio of 12.5 with (NH4)2SO4) change its decomposition. The relative percentage CO2 evolved increased from 35% of the added C in the pure 0.5% filter cake treatment to 41% in the 0.5% filter cake +0.25% glucose treatment to 48% in the 0.5% filter cake +0.5% glucose treatment. The three different amendment treatments led to immediate increases in microbial biomass C and biomass N within 6 h that persisted only in the pure filter cake treatment until the end of the incubation. The fungal cell-membrane component ergosterol showed initially an over-proportionate increase in relation to microbial biomass C that fully disappeared at the end of the incubation. The cellulase activity showed a 5-fold increase after filter cake addition, which was not further increased by the additional glucose amendment. The cellulase activity showed an exponential decline to values around 4% of the initial value in all treatments. The amount of inorganic N immobilized from day 0 to day 14 increased with increasing amount of C added in comparison to the control treatment. Since day 14, the immobilized N was re-mineralized at rates between 1.31 and 1.51 µg N g-1 soil d-1 in the amendment treatments and was thus more than doubled in comparison with the control treatment. This means that the re-mineralization rate is independent from the actual size of the microbial residues pool and also independent from the size of the soil microbial biomass. Other unknown soil properties seem to form a soil-specific gate for the release of inorganic N. The fourth incubation experiment was carried out with the objective of assessing the effects of salt additions containing different anions (Cl-, SO42-, HCO3-) on the microbial use of sugarcane filter cake and dhancha leaves amended to inoculated sterile quartz sand. In the subsequent fifth experiment, the objective was to assess the effects of inoculum and temperature on the decomposition of sugar cane filter cake. In the fourth experiment, sugarcane filter cake led to significantly lower respiration rates, lower contents of extractable C and N, and lower contents of microbial biomass C and N than dhancha leaves, but to a higher respiratory quotient RQ and to a higher content of the fungal biomarker ergosterol. The RQ was significantly increased after salt addition, when comparing the average of all salinity treatments with the control. Differences in anion composition had no clear effects on the RQ values. In experiment 2, the rise in temperature from 20 to 40°C increased the CO2 production rate by a factor of 1.6, the O2 consumption rate by a factor of 1.9 and the ergosterol content by 60%. In contrast, the contents of microbial biomass N decreased by 60% and the RQ by 13%. The effects of the inoculation with a saline soil were in most cases negative and did not indicate a better adaptation of these organisms to salinity. The general effects of anion composition on microbial biomass and activity indices were small and inconsistent. Only the fraction of 0.5 M K2SO4 extractable C and N in non-fumigated soil was consistently increased in the 1.2 M NaHCO3 treatment of both experiments. In contrast to the small salinity effects, the quality of the substrate has overwhelming effects on microbial biomass and activity indices, especially on the fungal part of the microbial community.