Air-sea transfer of gas phase controlled compounds

Gases in the atmosphere/ocean have solubility that spans several orders of magnitude. Resistance in the molecular sublayer on the waterside limits the air-sea exchange of sparingly soluble gases such as SF6 and CO2. In contrast, both aerodynamic and molecular diffusive resistances on the airside limit the exchange of highly soluble gases (as well as heat). Here we present direct measurements of air-sea methanol and acetone transfer from two open cruises: the Atlantic Meridional Transect in 2012 and the High Wind Gas Exchange Study in 2013. The transfer of the highly soluble methanol is essentially completely airside controlled, while the less soluble acetone is subject to both airside and waterside resistances. Both compounds were measured concurrently using a proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometer, with their fluxes quantified by the eddy covariance method. Up to a wind speed of 15 m s-1, observed air-sea transfer velocities of these two gases are largely consistent with the expected near linear wind speed dependence. Measured acetone transfer velocity is ~30% lower than that of methanol, which is primarily due to the lower solubility of acetone. From this difference we estimate the "zero bubble" waterside transfer velocity, which agrees fairly well with interfacial gas transfer velocities predicted by the COARE model. At wind speeds above 15 m s-1, the transfer velocities of both compounds are lower than expected in the mean. Air-sea transfer of sensible heat (also airside controlled) also appears to be reduced at wind speeds over 20 m s-1. During these conditions, large waves and abundant whitecaps generate large amounts of sea spray, which is predicted to alter heat transfer and could also affect the air-sea exchange of soluble trace gases. We make an order of magnitude estimate for the impacts of sea spray on air-sea methanol transfer.

Échanges d’énergie et d’eau des écosystèmes nordiques dans un contexte de changement climatique

Le réchauffement climatique affecte fortement les régions nordiques du Canada où le dégel du pergélisol discontinu à sa limite sud est accompagné du mouvement de la limite des arbres vers le nord en zone de pergélisol continu. Ces altérations faites aux paysages de la Taïga des Plaines sont le point de départ de plusieurs rétroactions puisque les changements apportés aux caractéristiques de la surface (au niveau de l’albédo, l’humidité du sol et la rugosité de la surface) vont à leur tour entraîner des modifications biophysiques et éventuellement influencer l’augmentation ou la diminution subséquente des températures et de l’humidité de l’air. Seulement, il y a un nombre important de facteurs d’influence qu’il est difficile de projeter toutes les boucles rétroactives qui surviendront avec les présents changements climatiques en régions nordiques. Dans le but de caractériser les échanges d’eau et d’énergie entre la surface et l’atmosphère de trois sites des Territoires du Nord-Ouest subissant les conséquences de l’augmentation des températures de l’air, la méthode micro-météorologique de covariance des turbulences fut utilisée en 2013 aux sites de Scotty Creek (forêt boréale et tourbière nordique en zone de pergélisol sporadique-discontinu), de Havikpak Creek (forêt boréale nordique en zone de pergélisol continu) et de Trail Valley Creek (toundra arctique en zone de pergélisol continu). En identifiant les procédés biotiques et abiotiques (ex. intensité lumineuse, disponibilité en eau, etc.) d’évapotranspiration aux trois sites, les contrôles par l’eau et l’énergie furent caractérisés et permirent ainsi de projeter une augmentation de la limitation en eau, mais surtout en énergie du site de Trail Valley Creek. La répartition de l’énergie projetée est semblable à celle de Havikpak Creek, avec une augmentation de la proportion du flux de chaleur sensible au détriment de celui latent suite aux modifications des caractéristiques de la surface (albédo, rugosité et humidité du sol). L’augmentation relative du flux d’énergie sensible laisse présager une boucle rétroactive positive de l’augmentation des températures de l’air à ce site. Ensuite, en comparant des données modelées de la hauteur de la couche limite planétaire et des données provenant de profils atmosphériques d’Environnement Canada entre les trois sites, les changements de hauteur de cette couche atmosphérique furent aussi projetés. Trail Valley Creek pourrait connaître une hausse de la hauteur de sa couche limite planétaire avec le temps alors que Scotty Creek connaîtrait une diminution de celle-ci. Ces changements au niveau des couches atmosphériques liés à la répartition des flux d’énergie dans les écosystèmes se répercuteraient alors sur le climat régional de façon difficile à déterminer pour l’instant. Les changements apportés désignent une boucle rétroactive positive des températures de l’air à Trail Valley Creek et l’inverse à Scotty Creek. Les deux axes d’analyse arrivent donc aux mêmes conclusions et soulignent aussi l’importance de l’influence mutuelle entre le climat et les caractéristiques spécifiques des écosystèmes à la surface.

Échanges d’énergie et d’eau des écosystèmes nordiques dans un contexte de changement climatique

Le réchauffement climatique affecte fortement les régions nordiques du Canada où le dégel du pergélisol discontinu à sa limite sud est accompagné du mouvement de la limite des arbres vers le nord en zone de pergélisol continu. Ces altérations faites aux paysages de la Taïga des Plaines sont le point de départ de plusieurs rétroactions puisque les changements apportés aux caractéristiques de la surface (au niveau de l’albédo, l’humidité du sol et la rugosité de la surface) vont à leur tour entraîner des modifications biophysiques et éventuellement influencer l’augmentation ou la diminution subséquente des températures et de l’humidité de l’air. Seulement, il y a un nombre important de facteurs d’influence qu’il est difficile de projeter toutes les boucles rétroactives qui surviendront avec les présents changements climatiques en régions nordiques. Dans le but de caractériser les échanges d’eau et d’énergie entre la surface et l’atmosphère de trois sites des Territoires du Nord-Ouest subissant les conséquences de l’augmentation des températures de l’air, la méthode micro-météorologique de covariance des turbulences fut utilisée en 2013 aux sites de Scotty Creek (forêt boréale et tourbière nordique en zone de pergélisol sporadique-discontinu), de Havikpak Creek (forêt boréale nordique en zone de pergélisol continu) et de Trail Valley Creek (toundra arctique en zone de pergélisol continu). En identifiant les procédés biotiques et abiotiques (ex. intensité lumineuse, disponibilité en eau, etc.) d’évapotranspiration aux trois sites, les contrôles par l’eau et l’énergie furent caractérisés et permirent ainsi de projeter une augmentation de la limitation en eau, mais surtout en énergie du site de Trail Valley Creek. La répartition de l’énergie projetée est semblable à celle de Havikpak Creek, avec une augmentation de la proportion du flux de chaleur sensible au détriment de celui latent suite aux modifications des caractéristiques de la surface (albédo, rugosité et humidité du sol). L’augmentation relative du flux d’énergie sensible laisse présager une boucle rétroactive positive de l’augmentation des températures de l’air à ce site. Ensuite, en comparant des données modelées de la hauteur de la couche limite planétaire et des données provenant de profils atmosphériques d’Environnement Canada entre les trois sites, les changements de hauteur de cette couche atmosphérique furent aussi projetés. Trail Valley Creek pourrait connaître une hausse de la hauteur de sa couche limite planétaire avec le temps alors que Scotty Creek connaîtrait une diminution de celle-ci. Ces changements au niveau des couches atmosphériques liés à la répartition des flux d’énergie dans les écosystèmes se répercuteraient alors sur le climat régional de façon difficile à déterminer pour l’instant. Les changements apportés désignent une boucle rétroactive positive des températures de l’air à Trail Valley Creek et l’inverse à Scotty Creek. Les deux axes d’analyse arrivent donc aux mêmes conclusions et soulignent aussi l’importance de l’influence mutuelle entre le climat et les caractéristiques spécifiques des écosystèmes à la surface.

Lake–atmosphere interactions at Alqueva reservoir: a case study in the summer of 2014

The study of lake–atmosphere interactions was the main purpose of a 2014 summer experiment at Alqueva reservoir in Portugal. Near-surface fluxes of momentum, heat and mass [water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2)] were obtained with the new Campbell Scientific’s IRGASON Integrated Open-Path CO2/H2O Gas Analyser and 3D Sonic Anemometer between 2 June and 2 October. On average, the reservoir was releasing energy in the form of sensible and latent heat flux during the study period. At the end of the 75 d, the total evaporation was estimated as 490.26 mm. A high correlation was found between the latent heat flux and the wind speed (R = 0.97). The temperature gradient between air and water was positive between 12 and 21 UTC, causing a negative sensible heat flux, and negative during the rest of the day, triggering a positive sensible heat flux. The reservoir acted as a sink of atmospheric CO2 with an average rate of −0.026 mg m−2 s−1. However, at a daily scale we found an unexpected uptake between 0 and 9 UTC and almost null flux between 13 and 19 UTC. Potential reasons for this result are further discussed. The net radiation was recorded for the same period and water column heat storage was estimated using water temperature profiles. The energy balance closure for the analysed period was 81%. In-water solar spectral downwelling irradiance profiles were measured with a new device allowing measurements independent of the solar zenith angle, which enabled the computation of the attenuation coefficient of light in the water column. The average attenuation coefficient for the photosynthetically active radiation spectral region varied from 0.849 ± 0.025 m−1 on 30 July to 1.459 ± 0.007 m−1 on 25 September.

Canopy-scale biophysical controls of transpiration and evaporation in the Amazon Basin.

Canopy and aerodynamic conductances (gC and gA) are two of the key land surface biophysical variables that control the land surface response of land surface schemes in climate models. Their representation is crucial for predicting transpiration (λET) and evaporation (λEE) flux components of the terrestrial latent heat flux (λE), which has important implications for global climate change and water resource management. By physical integration of radiometric surface temperature (TR) into an integrated framework of the Penman?Monteith and Shuttleworth?Wallace models, we present a novel approach to directly quantify the canopy-scale biophysical controls on λET and λEE over multiple plant functional types (PFTs) in the Amazon Basin. Combining data from six LBA (Large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia) eddy covariance tower sites and a TR-driven physically based modeling approach, we identified the canopy-scale feedback-response mechanism between gC, λET, and atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (DA), without using any leaf-scale empirical parameterizations for the modeling. The TR-based model shows minor biophysical control on λET during the wet (rainy) seasons where λET becomes predominantly radiation driven and net radiation (RN) determines 75 to 80 % of the variances of λET. However, biophysical control on λET is dramatically increased during the dry seasons, and particularly the 2005 drought year, explaining 50 to 65 % of the variances of λET, and indicates λET to be substantially soil moisture driven during the rainfall deficit phase. Despite substantial differences in gA between forests and pastures, very similar canopy?atmosphere "coupling" was found in these two biomes due to soil moisture-induced decrease in gC in the pasture. This revealed the pragmatic aspect of the TR-driven model behavior that exhibits a high sensitivity of gC to per unit change in wetness as opposed to gA that is marginally sensitive to surface wetness variability. Our results reveal the occurrence of a significant hysteresis between λET and gC during the dry season for the pasture sites, which is attributed to relatively low soil water availability as compared to the rainforests, likely due to differences in rooting depth between the two systems. Evaporation was significantly influenced by gA for all the PFTs and across all wetness conditions. Our analytical framework logically captures the responses of gC and gA to changes in atmospheric radiation, DA, and surface radiometric temperature, and thus appears to be promising for the improvement of existing land?surface?atmosphere exchange parameterizations across a range of spatial scales.

Canopy-scale biophysical controls of transpiration and evaporation in the Amazon Basin.

Canopy and aerodynamic conductances (gC and gA) are two of the key land surface biophysical variables that control the land surface response of land surface schemes in climate models. Their representation is crucial for predicting transpiration (?ET) and evaporation (?EE) flux components of the terrestrial latent heat flux (?E), which has important implications for global climate change and water resource management. By physical integration of radiometric surface temperature (TR) into an integrated framework of the Penman?Monteith and Shuttleworth?Wallace models, we present a novel approach to directly quantify the canopy-scale biophysical controls on ?ET and ?EE over multiple plant functional types (PFTs) in the Amazon Basin. Combining data from six LBA (Large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia) eddy covariance tower sites and a TR-driven physically based modeling approach, we identified the canopy-scale feedback-response mechanism between gC, ?ET, and atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (DA), without using any leaf-scale empirical parameterizations for the modeling. The TR-based model shows minor biophysical control on ?ET during the wet (rainy) seasons where ?ET becomes predominantly radiation driven and net radiation (RN) determines 75 to 80?% of the variances of ?ET. However, biophysical control on ?ET is dramatically increased during the dry seasons, and particularly the 2005 drought year, explaining 50 to 65?% of the variances of ?ET, and indicates ?ET to be substantially soil moisture driven during the rainfall deficit phase. Despite substantial differences in gA between forests and pastures, very similar canopy?atmosphere "coupling" was found in these two biomes due to soil moisture-induced decrease in gC in the pasture. This revealed the pragmatic aspect of the TR-driven model behavior that exhibits a high sensitivity of gC to per unit change in wetness as opposed to gA that is marginally sensitive to surface wetness variability. Our results reveal the occurrence of a significant hysteresis between ?ET and gC during the dry season for the pasture sites, which is attributed to relatively low soil water availability as compared to the rainforests, likely due to differences in rooting depth between the two systems. Evaporation was significantly influenced by gA for all the PFTs and across all wetness conditions. Our analytical framework logically captures the responses of gC and gA to changes in atmospheric radiation, DA, and surface radiometric temperature, and thus appears to be promising for the improvement of existing land?surface?atmosphere exchange parameterizations across a range of spatial scales.

Eddy Formation in the Tropical Atlantic Induced by Abrupt Changes in the Meridional Overturning Circulation

The variability of the meridional overturning circulation (MOC) in the upper tropical Atlantic basin is investigated using a reduced-gravity model in a simplified domain. Four sets of idealized numerical experiments are performed: (i) switch-on of the MOC until a fixed value when a constant northward flow is applied along the western boundary; (ii) MOC with a variable flow; (iii) MOC in a quasi-steady flow; and (iv) shutdown of the MOC in the Northern Hemisphere. Results from experiments (i) show that eddies are generated at the equatorial region by shear instability and detached northward; eddies are responsible for an enhancement of the mean flow and the variability of the MOC. Results from experiments (ii) show a transitional behavior of the MOC related to the eddy generation in interannual-decadal time scales as the Reynolds number varies due to the variations in the MOC. In experiments (iii), a critical Reynolds number Re(c) around 30 is found, above which eddies are generated. Experiments (iv) demonstrate that even after the collapse of MOC in the Northern Hemisphere, eddies can still be generated and carry energy across the equator into the Northern Hemisphere; these eddies act to attenuate the impact of the MOC shutdown on short time scales. The results described here may be particularly pertinent to ocean general circulation models in which the Reynolds number lies close to the bifurcation point separating the laminar and turbulent regimes.

Ultrasound, eddy current and magnetic Barkhausen noise as tools for sigma phase detection on a UNS S31803 duplex stainless steel

Sigma phase is a deleterious one which can be formed in duplex stainless steels during heat treatment or welding. Aiming to accompany this transformation, ferrite and sigma percentage and hardness were measured on samples of a UNS S31803 duplex stainless steel submitted to heat treatment. These results were compared to measurements obtained from ultrasound and eddy current techniques, i.e., velocity and impedance, respectively. Additionally, backscattered signals produced by wave propagation were acquired during ultrasonic inspection as well as magnetic Barkhausen noise during magnetic inspection. Both signal types were processed via a combination of detrended-fluctuation analysis (DFA) and principal component analysis (PCA). The techniques used were proven to be sensitive to changes in samples related to sigma phase formation due to heat treatment. Furthermore, there is an advantage using these methods since they are nondestructive. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Magnetic loss, permeability dispersion, and role of eddy currents in Mn-Zn sintered ferrites

Magnetic energy losses and permeability have been investigated in laboratory prepared and commercial Mn-Zn sintered ferrites from quasi-static conditions up to 10 MHz. The mechanisms leading to energy dissipation, either due to domain wall displacements or magnetization rotations, have been quantitatively assessed and their respective roles have been clarified. Domain wall processes dissipate energy by pure relaxation effects, while rotations display resonant absorption of energy over a broad range of frequencies. Their specific contributions to the permeability and its frequency dispersion are thus identified and separately evaluated. It is shown that eddy currents are always too weak to appreciably contribute to the losses over the whole investigated frequency range and that rotations are the dominant magnetization and loss producing mechanisms on approaching the MHz range, as predicted by the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation with distributed anisotropy fields. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Evolution of the genetic covariance between male and female components of mate recognition: An experimental test

The evolution of a positive genetic correlation between male and female components of mate recognition systems will result as a consequence of assortative mating and, in particular, is central to a number of theories of sexual selection. Although the existence of such genetic correlations has been investigated in a number of taxa, it has yet to be shown that such correlations evolve and whether they may evolve as rapidly as suggested by sexual selection models. In this study, I used a hybridization experiment to disrupt natural mate recognition systems and then observed the subsequent evolutionary dynamics of the genetic correlation between male and female components for 56 generations in hybrids between Drosophila serrata and Drosophila birchii. The genetic correlation between male and female components evolved from 0.388 at generation 5 to 1.017 at generation 37 and then declined to -0.040 after a further 19 generations. These results indicated that the genetic basis of the mate recognition system in the hybrid populations evolved rapidly. The initial rapid increase in the genetic correlation was consistent with the classic assumption that male and female components will coevolve under sexual selection. The subsequent decline in genetic correlation may be attributable to the fixation of major genes or, alternatively, may be a result of a cyclic evolutionary change in mate recognition.

Finite-difference time-domain-based studies of MRI pulsed field gradient-induced eddy currents inside the human body

In modern magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), patients are exposed to strong, rapidly switching magnetic gradient fields that, in extreme cases, may be able to elicit nerve stimulation. This paper presents theoretical investigations into the spatial distribution of induced current inside human tissues caused by pulsed z-gradient fields. A variety of gradient waveforms have been studied. The simulations are based on a new, high-definition, finite-difference time-domain method and a realistic inhomogeneous 10-mm resolution human body model with appropriate tissue parameters. it was found that the eddy current densities are affected not only by the pulse sequences but by many parameters such as the position of the body inside the gradient set, the local biological material properties and the geometry of the body. The discussion contains a comparison of these results with previous results found in the literature. This study and the new methods presented herein will help to further investigate the biological effects caused by the switched gradient fields in a MRI scan. (C) 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Genetic covariance between indices of body condition and immunocompetence in a passerine bird

Background: Condition-dependence is a ubiquitous feature of animal life histories and has important implications for both natural and sexual selection. Mate choice, for instance, is typically based on condition-dependent signals. Theory predicts that one reason why condition-dependent signals may be special is that they allow females to scan for genes that confer high parasite resistance. Such explanations require a genetic link between immunocompetence and body condition, but existing evidence is limited to phenotypic associations. It remains unknown, therefore, whether females selecting males with good body condition simply obtain a healthy mate, or if they acquire genes for their offspring that confer high immunocompetence. Results: Here we use a cross-foster experimental design to partition the phenotypic covariance in indices of body condition and immunocompetence into genetic, maternal and environmental effects in a passerine bird, the zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata. We show that there is significant positive additive genetic covariance between an index of body condition and an index of cell-mediated immune response. In this case, genetic variance in the index of immune response explained 56% of the additive genetic variance in the index of body condition. Conclusion: Our results suggest that, in the context of sexual selection, females that assess males on the basis of condition-dependent signals may gain genes that confer high immunocompetence for their offspring. More generally, a genetic correlation between indices of body condition and imuunocompetence supports the hypothesis that parasite resistance may be an important target of natural selection. Additional work is now required to test whether genetic covariance exists among other aspects of both condition and immunocompetence.

Covariance functions for body weight from birth to maturity in Nellore cows

The objective of this study was to estimate (co)variance functions using random regression models on Legendre polynomials for the analysis of repeated measures of BW from birth to adult age. A total of 82,064 records from 8,145 females were analyzed. Different models were compared. The models included additive direct and maternal effects, and animal and maternal permanent environmental effects as random terms. Contemporary group and dam age at calving (linear and quadratic effect) were included as fixed effects, and orthogonal Legendre polynomials of animal age (cubic regression) were considered as random co-variables. Eight models with polynomials of third to sixth order were used to describe additive direct and maternal effects, and animal and maternal permanent environmental effects. Residual effects were modeled using 1 (i.e., assuming homogeneity of variances across all ages) or 5 age classes. The model with 5 classes was the best to describe the trajectory of residuals along the growth curve. The model including fourth- and sixth-order polynomials for additive direct and animal permanent environmental effects, respectively, and third-order polynomials for maternal genetic and maternal permanent environmental effects were the best. Estimates of (co) variance obtained with the multi-trait and random regression models were similar. Direct heritability estimates obtained with the random regression models followed a trend similar to that obtained with the multi-trait model. The largest estimates of maternal heritability were those of BW taken close to 240 d of age. In general, estimates of correlation between BW from birth to 8 yr of age decreased with increasing distance between ages.

On the heritability of inspection time and its covariance with IQ: A twin study

Using the classical twin design, this study investigates the influence of genetic factors on the large phenotypic variance in inspection time (IT), and whether the well established IT-IQ association can be explained by a common genetic factor. Three hundred ninety pairs of twins (184 monozygotic, MZ; 206 dizygotic, DZ) with a mean age of 16 years participated, and 49 pairs returned approximately 3 months, later for retesting. As in many IT studies, the pi figure stimulus was used and IT was estimated from the cumulative normal ogive. IT ranged from 39.4 to 774.1 ms (159 +/- 110.1 ms) with faster ITs (by an average of 26.9 ms) found in the retest session from which a reliability of .69 was estimated. Full-scale IQ (FIQ) was assessed by the Multidimensional Aptitude Battery (MAB) and ranged from 79 to 145 (111 +/- 13). The phenotypic association between IT and FIQ was confirmed (- .35) and bivariate results showed that a common genetic factor accounted for 36% of the variance in IT and 32% of the variance in FIQ. The maximum likelihood estimate of the genetic correlation was - .63. When performance and verbal IQ (PIQ & VIQ) were analysed with IT, a stronger phenotypic and genetic relationship was found between PIQ and IT than with VIQ. A large part of the IT variance (64%) was accounted for by a unique environmental factor. Further genetic factors were needed to explain the remaining variance in IQ with a small component of unique environmental variance present. The separability of a shared genetic factor influencing IT and IQ from the total genetic variance in IQ suggests that IT affects a specific subcomponent of intelligence rather than a generalised efficiency. (C) 2001 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.