The effects of acute exercise-induced cortisol on CCR2 expression on human monocytes

CC-chemokine receptor 2 (CCR2) and its ligand, monocyte chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1, also known as CCL2), are crucial for the recruitment of monocytes/macrophages to sites of inflammation. We conducted a series of experiments to investigate the relationship between stress, monocyte CCR2 expression and migration activity. First, we collected peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from untrained subjects (n=8) and measured CCR2 expression on CD14(+) monocytes cultured with cortisol, epinephrine and norepinephrine. Second, we collected PBMC from the subjects before and after they cycled for 60 min at 70% peak O(2) uptake (VO2(peak)), and measured alterations in CCR2 expression on monocytes following exercise. Third, we cultured PBMC with serum obtained before and after exercise and the glucocorticoid antagonist RU-486 to determine the effect of cortisol on CCR2 expression in vitro. Last, we measured the ability of PBMC treated with serum or cortisol to migrate through membrane filters in response to CCL2. Cortisol (but not epinephrine or norepinephrine) increased CCR2 expression on monocytes in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Exercise did not influence CCR2 expression on PBMC, whereas incubation of PBMC with post-exercise serum significantly increased CCR2 expression. Both cortisol and post-exercise serum increased the migration of PBMC toward CCL2. The increase in CCR2 expression on PBMC following stimulation with cortisol and serum was blocked by the glucocorticoid receptor antagonist RU-486. In conclusion, cortisol released during exercise increased monocyte CCR2 expression and migration activity in vitro. These alterations may influence inflammation and regeneration of damaged tissue after acute stress.

Prediction of age at menopause from assessment of ovarian reserve may be improved by using body mass index and smoking status

Objective: Menopause is the consequence of exhaustion of the ovarian follicular pool. AMH, an indirect hormonal marker of ovarian reserve, has been recently proposed as a predictor for age at menopause. Since BMI and smoking status are relevant independent factors associated with age at menopause we evaluated whether a model including all three of these variables could improve AMH-based prediction of age at menopause. Methods: In the present cohort study, participants were 375 eumenorrheic women aged 19–44 years and a sample of 2,635 Italian menopausal women. AMH values were obtained from the eumenorrheic women. Results: Regression analysis of the AMH data showed that a quadratic function of age provided a good description of these data plotted on a logarithmic scale, with a distribution of residual deviates that was not normal but showed significant leftskewness. Under the hypothesis that menopause can be predicted by AMH dropping below a critical threshold, a model predicting menopausal age was constructed from the AMH regression model and applied to the data on menopause. With the AMH threshold dependent on the covariates BMI and smoking status, the effects of these covariates were shown to be highly significant. Conclusions: In the present study we confirmed the good level of conformity between the distributions of observed and AMH-predicted ages at menopause, and showed that using BMI and smoking status as additional variables improves AMH-based prediction of age at menopause.

Nutritional analysis of gastric contents and body condition score at a single time point in feral horses in Australia

Objective: To determine the impact of a free-choice diet on nutritional intake and body condition of feral horses. Animals: Cadavers of 41 feral horses from 5 Australian locations. Procedures: Body condition score (BCS) was determined (scale of 1 to 9), and the stomach was removed from horses during postmortem examination. Stomach contents were analyzed for nutritional variables and macroelement and microelement concentrations. Data were compared among the locations and also compared with recommended daily intakes for horses. Results: Mean BCS varied by location; all horses were judged to be moderately thin. The BCS for males was 1 to 3 points higher than that of females. Amount of protein in the stomach contents varied from 4.3% to 14.9% and was significantly associated with BCS. Amounts of water-soluble carbohydrate and ethanol-soluble carbohydrate in stomach contents of feral horses from all 5 locations were higher than those expected for horses eating high-quality forage. Some macroelement and microelement concentrations were grossly excessive, whereas others were grossly deficient. There was no evidence of ill health among the horses. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Results suggested that the diet for several populations of feral horses in Australia appeared less than optimal. However, neither low BCS nor trace mineral deficiency appeared to affect survival of the horses. Additional studies on food sources in these regions, including analysis of water-soluble carbohydrate, ethanol-soluble carbohydrate, and mineral concentrations, are warranted to determine the provenance of such rich sources of nutrients. Determination of the optimal diet for horses may need revision.

Body temperature and its effect on leukocyte mobilization, cytokines and markers of neutrophil activation during and after exercise

We investigated the influence of rectal temperature on the immune system during and after exercise. Ten well-trained male cyclists completed exercise trials (90 min cycling at 60% VO(2max) + 16.1 - km time trial) on three separate occasions: once in 18 degrees C and twice in 32 degrees C. Twenty minutes after the trials in 32 degrees C, the cyclists sat for approximately 20 min in cold water (14 degrees C) on one occasion, whereas on another occasion they sat at room temperature. Rectal temperature increased significantly during cycling in both conditions, and was significantly higher after cycling in 32 degrees C than in 18 degrees C (P < 0.05). Leukocyte counts increased significantly during cycling but did not differ between the conditions. The concentrations of serum interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8 and IL-10, plasma catecholamines, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, myeloperoxidase and calprotectin increased significantly following cycling in both conditions. The concentrations of serum IL-8 (25%), IL-10 (120%), IL-1 receptor antagonist (70%), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (17%), plasma myeloperoxidase (26%) and norepinephrine (130%) were significantly higher after cycling in 32 degrees C than in 18 degrees C. During recovery from exercise in 32 degrees C, rectal temperature was significantly lower in response to sitting in cold water than at room temperature. However, immune changes during 90 min of recovery did not differ significantly between sitting in cold water and at room temperature. The greater rise in rectal temperature during exercise in 32 degrees C increased the concentrations of serum IL-8, IL-10, IL-1ra, TNF-alpha and plasma myeloperoxidase, whereas the greater decline in rectal temperature during cold water immersion after exercise did not affect immune responses.

Carbohydrate supplementation and alterations in neutrophils, and plasma cortisol and myoglobin concentration after intense exercise

The present study examined the effect of carbohydrate supplementation on changes in neutrophil counts, and the plasma concentrations of cortisol and myoglobin after intense exercise. Eight well-trained male runners ran on a treadmill for 1 h at 85% maximal oxygen uptake on two separate occasions. In a double-blind cross-over design, subjects consumed either 750 ml of a 10% carbohydrate (CHO) drink or a placebo drink on each occasion. The order of the trials was counter-balanced. Blood was drawn immediately before and after exercise, and 1 h after exercise. Immediately after exercise, neutrophil counts (CHO, 49%; placebo, 65%; P<0.05), plasma concentrations of glucose (CHO, 43%; P<0.05), lactate (CHO, 130%; placebo, 130%; P<0.01), cortisol (CHO, 100%; placebo, 161%; P<0.01), myoglobin (CHO, 194%; placebo, 342%; P<0.01) all increased significantly. One hour post-exercise, plasma myoglobin concentration (CHO, 331%; placebo, 482%; P<0.01) and neutrophil count (CHO, 151%; placebo, 230% P<0.01) both increased further above baseline. CHO significantly attenuated plasma myoglobin concentration and the neutrophil count after exercise (P<0.01), but did not affect plasma cortisol concentration. The effects of CHO on plasma myoglobin concentration may be due to alterations in cytokine synthesis, insulin responses or myoglobin clearance rates from the bloodstream during exercise. Plasma cortisol responses to CHO during exercise may depend on the intensity of exercise, or the amount of CHO consumed. Lastly, cortisol appears to play a minor role in the mobilisation of neutrophils after intense exercise.

A critical assessment of the Australian OHS accreditation system's "Body of Knowledge (BoK)"

In response to an increasing perception of poor OHS consultancy quality amongst the Australian public, regulator and OHS professionals, the Safety Institute Australia (SIA) was tasked by the Victorian government to establish an accreditation process for OHS professionals. The OHS accreditation board decided to base its accreditation on a core "body of knowledge" (BoK), against which applicants are assesssed. While the foundation and structure of the BoK is unclear, the BoK consists of a collection of essays from a variety of invited authors. The BoK comprises about 811 pages in 34 chapters, with significant redundancy and considerable subjective components. The SIA BoK is benchmarked against two international best-practices, the German "Core Definition, Object Catalog and Research Domains of Labour Science (Ergonomics)" (Luzcak, Volpert, Raeithel & Schwier, 1989)(100 pages) and the American "Core Competency Model" for the "Master's Degree in Public Health" (Association of Schools of Public Health, 2006) (21 pages). Both "core definition" and "core competency model" are on a comparative level to the BoK. While the German expert panel consisted of 14 eminent professors, the American panel consisted of 135 members, organized in 6 groups chaired by discipline leading academics. The Australian approach employed a broad approach, where 137 professionals, consultants, emerging academics and academics contributed to 8 workshops. Both the German and the American panels maintained an open communication amongst members and with the discipline community throughout the process, whereas SIA applied an open and directed peer-review process. Moreover, the German process involved an analysis of all congress content and journal publications in the scientific domain in a set timeframe, which were then systematically clustered. These results were further expanded by structured interviews with 38 professors in the discpline, grasping their research and teaching practice. The American workgroup however assumed core scientific areas, underlying the domain. Based upon the a-priori assumption, they then established well defined competencies across all areas using a modified Delphi process. Although the BoK attempts to explore the knowledge in the OHS domain without an imposed structure in a bottom-up approach, it does not result in a structured systematic of the science. We conclude that the outcome of the German, rigorous academic approach, and the US American democratic approach under unambiguous academic leadership both outperform the Australian advocacy group approach. This product was determined for both structure and content of the taxonomy delivered through the processes.

Understanding body image disturbance in the promotion of mental health : a discourse analytic study

Health care interventions in the area of body image disturbance and eating disorders largely involve individual treatment approaches, while prevention and health promotion are relatively underexplored. A review of health promotion activities in the area of body image in Australia revealed three programmes, the most extensive and longest standing having been established in 1992. The aims of this programme are to reduce body image dissatisfaction and inappropriate eating behaviour, especially among women. Because health promotion is concerned with the social aspects of health, it was hypothesized by the authors that a social understanding of body image and eating disorders might be advanced in a health promotion setting and reflected in the approach to practice. In order to examine approaches to body image in health promotion, 10 health professionals responsible for the design and management of this programme participated in a series of semi-structured interviews between 1997 and 2000. Three discursive themes were evident in health workers' explanations of body image problems: (1) cognitive-behavioural themes; (2) gender themes; and (3) socio-cultural themes. While body image problems were constructed as psychological problems that are particularly experienced by women, their origins were largely conceived to be socio-cultural. The implications of these constructions are critically discussed in terms of the approach to health promotion used in this programme.

Footprint-based estimates of arch structure are confounded by body composition in adults

Previous research employing indirect measures of arch structure, such as those derived from footprints, have indicated that obesity results in a “flatter” foot type. In the absence of radiographic measures, however, definitive conclusions regarding the osseous alignment of the foot cannot be made. We determined the effect of body mass index (BMI) on radiographic and footprint‐based measures of arch structure. The research was a cross‐sectional study in which radiographic and footprint‐based measures of foot structure were made in 30 subjects (10 males, 20 female) in addition to standard anthropometric measures of height, weight, and BMI. Multiple (univariate) regression analysis demonstrated that both BMI ( β  = 0.39, t 26  = 2.12, p  = 0.04) and radiographic arch alignment ( β  = 0.51, t 26  = 3.32, p  < 0.01) were significant predictors of footprint‐based measures of arch height after controlling for all variables in the model ( R 2  = 0.59, F 3,26  = 12.3, p  < 0.01). In contrast, radiographic arch alignment was not significantly associated with BMI ( β  = −0.03, t 26  = −0.13, p  = 0.89) when Arch Index and age were held constant ( R 2  = 0.52, F 3,26  = 9.3, p  < 0.01). Adult obesity does not influence osseous alignment of the medial longitudinal arch, but selectively distorts footprint‐based measures of arch structure. Footprint‐based measures of arch structure should be interpreted with caution when comparing groups of varying body composition.

Performance of elite seated discus throwers in F30s classes : part I: does whole body positioning matter?

Background: Studies on the relationship between performance and design of the throwing frame have been limited and therefore require further investigation. Objectives: The specific objectives were to provide benchmark information about performance and whole body positioning of male athletes in F30s classes. Study Design: Descriptive analysis. Methods: A total of 48 attempts performed by 12 stationary discus throwers in F33 and F34 classes during seated discus throwing event of 2002 International Paralympic Committee Athletics World Championships were analysed in this study. The whole body positioning included overall throwing posture (i.e. number of points of contact between the thrower and the frame, body position, throwing orientation and throwing side) and lower limb placements (i.e. seating arrangements, points of contact on the both feet, type of attachment of both legs and feet). Results: Three (25%), five (42%), one (8%) and three (25%) athletes used from three to six points of contact, respectively. Seven (58%) and five (42%) athletes threw from a standing or a seated position, respectively. A straddle, a stool or a chair was used by six (50%), four (33%) or two (17%) throwers, respectively. Conclusions: This study provides key information for a better understanding of the interaction between throwing technique of elite seated throwers and their throwing frame.

Stockholm Syndrome : architecture, politics and the human body

The exchange between the body and architecture walks a fine line between violence and pleasure. It is through the body that the subject engages with the architectural act, not via thought or reason, but through action. The materiality of architecture is the often the catalyst for some intense association; the wall that defines gender or class, the double bolted door that incarcerates, the enclosed privacy of the bedroom to the love affair. Architecture is the physical manifestation of Lefebvre’s inscribed space. It enacts the social and political systems through bodily occupation. Architecture, when tested by the occupation of bodies, anchors ideology in both space and time. The architect’s script can be powerful when rehearsed honestly to the building’s intentions and just as beautiful when rebuked by the act of protest or unfaithful occupation. This research examines this fine line of violence and pleasure in architecture through performance, in the work of Bryony Lavin’s play Stockholm and Revolving Door by Allora & Calzadilla as part of the recent Kaldor Public Art Projects exhibition 13 Rooms in Sydney. The research is underpinned by the work of Architect and theorist, Bernard Tschumi in his two essays, Violence of Architecture and The Pleasure of Architecture. Studying architecture through the lens of performance shifts the focus of examination from pure thought to the body; because architecture is occupied through the body and not the mind.

Effects of whole body cryotherapy and cold water immersion on knee skin temperature

This study sought to a) compare and contrast the effect of 2 commonly used cryotherapy treatments, 4 min of − 110 °C whole body cryotherapy and 8 °C cold water immersion, on knee skin temperature and b) establish whether either protocol was capable of achieving a skin temperature ( < 13 °C) believed to be required for analgesic purposes. After ethics committee approval and written informed consent was obtained, 10 healthy males (26.5 ± 4.9 yr, 183.5 ± 6.0 cm, 90.7 ± 19.9 kg, 26.8 ± 5.0 kg/m 2 , 23.0 ± 9.3 % body fat; mean ± SD) participated in this randomised controlled crossover study. Skin temperature around the patellar region was assessed in both knees via non-contact, infrared thermal imaging and recorded pre-, immediately post-treatment and every 10 min thereafter for 60 min. Compared to baseline, average, minimum and maximum skin temperatures were significantly reduced (p < 0.001) immediately post-treatment and at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 min after both cooling modalities. Average and minimum skin temperatures were lower (p < 0.05) immediately after whole body cryotherapy (19.0 ± 0.9 ° C) compared to cold water immersion (20.5 ± 0.6 ° C). However, from 10 to 60 min post, the average, minimum and maximum skin temperatures were lower (p < 0.05) following the cold water treatment. Finally, neither protocol achieved a skin temperature believed to be required to elicit an analgesic effect.

Determinants of uptake of whole-body skin self-examination in older men

Early detection through whole-body Skin Self-Examination (wbSSE) may decrease mortality from melanoma. Using the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) or Health Belief Model (HBM) we aimed to assess determinants of uptake of wbSSE in 410 men 50 years of older who participated in the control group of a randomized trial. Overall, the HAPA was a significantly better predictor of wbSSE compared to the HBM (p < .001). The construct of self-efficacy in the HBM was a significant predictor of future wbSSE (p = .001), while neither perceived threat (p = .584) nor outcome expectations (p = .220) were. In contrast, self-efficacy, perceived threat, and outcome expectations predicted intention to perform SSE, which predicted behavior (p = .015). The HAPA construct volitional self-efficacy was also associated with wbSSE (p = .046). The use of the HAPA model for future SSE interventions for this population is warranted.

The ancient gene C12orf29 : an exploration of its role in the chordate body plan

The sheep (Ovis aries) is commonly used as a large animal model in skeletal research. Although the sheep genome has been sequenced there are still only a limited number of annotated mRNA sequences in public databases. A complementary DNA (cDNA) library was constructed to provide a generic resource for further exploration of genes that are actively expressed in bone cells in sheep. It was anticipated that the cDNA library would provide molecular tools for further research into the process of fracture repair and bone homeostasis, and add to the existing body of knowledge. One of the hallmarks of cDNA libraries has been the identification of novel genes and in this library the full open reading frame of the gene C12orf29 was cloned and characterised. This gene codes for a protein of unknown function with a molecular weight of 37 kDa. A literature search showed that no previous studies had been conducted into the biological role of C12orf29, except for some bioinformatics studies that suggested a possible link with cancer. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that C12orf29 had an ancient pedigree with a homologous gene found in some bacterial taxa. This implied that the gene was present in the last common eukaryotic ancestor, thought to have existed more than 2 billion years ago. This notion was further supported by the fact that the gene is found in taxa belonging to the two major eukaryotic branches, bikonts and unikonts. In the bikont supergroup a C12orf29-like gene was found in the single celled protist Naegleria gruberi, whereas in the unikont supergroup, encompassing the metazoa, the gene is universal to all chordate and, therefore, vertebrate species. It appears to have been lost to the majority of cnidaria and protostomes taxa; however, C12orf29-like genes have been found in the cnidarian freshwater hydra and the protostome Pacific oyster. The experimental data indicate that C12orf29 has a structural role in skeletal development and tissue homeostasis, whereas in silico analysis of the human C12orf29 promoter region suggests that its expression is potentially under the control of the NOTCH, WNT and TGF- developmental pathways, as well SOX9 and BAPX1; pathways that are all heavily involved in skeletogenesis. Taken together, this investigation provides strong evidence that C12orf29 has a very important role in the chordate body plan, in early skeletal development, cartilage homeostasis, and also a possible link with spina bifida in humans.

Critical reflection on the SIA’s professional project and the body of knowledge

Over the last few years the Safety Institute of Australia (SIA) has developed and implemented a number of strategies to gain professional status for the ‘generalist occupational health and safety professional’. Two of the most significant developments have been the publication of the ‘Core Body of Knowledge for the Generalist OHS Professional.’ and the accreditation of university OHS courses. Despite a considerable amount of work aimed at gaining professional status there has not been any public debate or reflection about how the professionalisation project may impact on OHS and how the project is being conducted. Professionalisation has been vigorously promoted as a sign of maturity for the SIA and which will provide unmitigated benefits for workplace health and safety. The aim of this paper is to critically reflect on the processes of professionalisation (the professional project) and discuss some of the ways in which this project may shape the field of occupational health and safety. The implications for the role of universities will also be discussed.

Nutritional status of Ugandan women living with HIV/AIDS : anthropometry and body composition assessment

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) that leads to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDs) reduces immune function, resulting in opportunistic infections and later death. Use of antiretroviral therapy (ART) increases chances of survival, however, with some concerns regarding fat re-distribution (lipodystrophy) which may encompass subcutaneous fat loss (lipoatrophy) and/or fat accumulation (lipohypertrophy), in the same individual. This problem has been linked to Antiretroviral drugs (ARVs), majorly, in the class of protease inhibitors (PIs), in addition to older age and being female. An additional concern is that the problem exists together with the metabolic syndrome, even when nutritional status/ body composition, and lipodystrophy/metabolic syndrome are unclear in Uganda where the use of ARVs is on the increase. In line with the literature, the overall aim of the study was to assess physical characteristics of HIV-infected patients using a comprehensive anthropometric protocol and to predict body composition based on these measurements and other standardised techniques. The other aim was to establish the existence of lipodystrophy, the metabolic syndrome, andassociated risk factors. Thus, three studies were conducted on 211 (88 ART-naïve) HIV-infected, 15-49 year-old women, using a cross-sectional approach, together with a qualitative study of secondary information on patient HIV and medication status. In addition, face-to-face interviews were used to extract information concerning morphological experiences and life style. The study revealed that participants were on average 34.1±7.65 years old, had lived 4.63±4.78 years with HIV infection and had spent 2.8±1.9 years receiving ARVs. Only 8.1% of participants were receiving PIs and 26% of those receiving ART had ever changed drug regimen, 15.5% of whom changed drugs due to lipodystrophy. Study 1 hypothesised that the mean nutritional status and predicted percent body fat values of study participants was within acceptable ranges; different for participants receiving ARVs and the HIV-infected ART-naïve participants and that percent body fat estimated by anthropometric measures (BMI and skinfold thickness) and the BIA technique was not different from that predicted by the deuterium oxide dilution technique. Using the Body Mass Index (BMI), 7.1% of patients were underweight (<18.5 kg/m2) and 46.4% were overweight/obese (≥25.0 kg/m2). Based on waist circumference (WC), approximately 40% of the cohort was characterized as centrally obese. Moreover, the deuterium dilution technique showed that there was no between-group difference in the total body water (TBW), fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM). However, the technique was the only approach to predict a between-group difference in percent body fat (p = .045), but, with a very small effect (0.021). Older age (β = 0.430, se = 0.089, p = .000), time spent receiving ARVs (β = 0.972, se = 0.089, p = .006), time with the infection (β = 0.551, se = 0.089, p = .000) and receiving ARVs (β = 2.940, se = 1.441, p = .043) were independently associated with percent body fat. Older age was the greatest single predictor of body fat. Furthermore, BMI gave better information than weight alone could; in that, mean percentage body fat per unit BMI (N = 192) was significantly higher in patients receiving treatment (1.11±0.31) vs. the exposed group (0.99±0.38, p = .025). For the assessment of obesity, percent fat measures did not greatly alter the accuracy of BMI as a measure for classifying individuals into the broad categories of underweight, normal and overweight. Briefly, Study 1 revealed that there were more overweight/obese participants than in the general Ugandan population, the problem was associated with ART status and that BMI broader classification categories were maintained when compared with the gold standard technique. Study 2 hypothesized that the presence of lipodystrophy in participants receiving ARVs was not different from that of HIV-infected ART-naïve participants. Results showed that 112 (53.1%) patients had experienced at least one morphological alteration including lipohypertrophy (7.6%), lipoatrophy (10.9%), and mixed alterations (34.6%). The majority of these subjects (90%) were receiving ARVs; in fact, all patients receiving PIs reported lipodystrophy. Period spent receiving ARVs (t209 = 6.739, p = .000), being on ART (χ2 = 94.482, p = .000), receiving PIs (Fisher’s exact χ2 = 113.591, p = .000), recent T4 count (CD4 counts) (t207 = 3.694, p = .000), time with HIV (t125 = 1.915, p = .045), as well as older age (t209 = 2.013, p = .045) were independently associated with lipodystrophy. Receiving ARVs was the greatest predictor of lipodystrophy (p = .000). In other analysis, aside from skinfolds at the subscapular (p = .004), there were no differences with the rest of the skinfold sites and the circumferences between participants with lipodystrophy and those without the problem. Similarly, there was no difference in Waist: Hip ratio (WHR) (p = .186) and Waist: Height ratio (WHtR) (p = .257) among participants with lipodystrophy and those without the problem. Further examination showed that none of the 4.1% patients receiving stavudine (d4T) did experience lipoatrophy. However, 17.9% of patients receiving EFV, a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) had lipoatrophy. Study 2 findings showed that presence of lipodystrophy in participants receiving ARVs was in fact far higher than that of HIV-infected ART-naïve participants. A final hypothesis was that the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in participants receiving ARVs was not different from that of HIV-infected ART-naïve participants. Moreover, data showed that many patients (69.2%) lived with at least one feature of the metabolic syndrome based on International Diabetic Federation (IDF, 2006) definition. However, there was no single anthropometric predictor of components of the syndrome, thus, the best anthropometric predictor varied as the component varied. The metabolic syndrome was diagnosed in 15.2% of the subjects, lower than commonly reported in this population, and was similar between the medicated and the exposed groups (χ 21 = 0.018, p = .893). Moreover, the syndrome was associated with older age (p = .031) and percent body fat (p = .012). In addition, participants with the syndrome were heavier according to BMI (p = .000), larger at the waist (p = .000) and abdomen (p = .000), and were at central obesity risk even when hip circumference (p = .000) and height (p = .000) were accounted for. In spite of those associations, results showed that the period with disease (p = .13), CD4 counts (p = .836), receiving ART (p = .442) or PIs (p = .678) were not associated with the metabolic syndrome. While the prevalence of the syndrome was highest amongst the older, larger and fatter participants, WC was the best predictor of the metabolic syndrome (p = .001). Another novel finding was that participants with the metabolic syndrome had greater arm muscle circumference (AMC) (p = .000) and arm muscle area (AMA) (p = .000), but the former was most influential. Accordingly, the easiest and cheapest indicator to assess risk in this study sample was WC should routine laboratory services not be feasible. In addition, the final study illustrated that the prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in participants receiving ARVs was not different from that of HIV-infected ART-naïve participants.