Loess as a Collapsible Soil: Some Basic Particle Packing

Loess is the most important collapsible soil; possibly the only engineering soil in which real collapse occurs. A real collapse involves a diminution in volume - it would be an open metastable packing being reduced to a more closely packed, more stable structure. Metastability is at the heart of the collapsible soils problem. To envisage and to model the collapse process in a metastable medium, knowledge is required about the nature and shape of the particles, the types of packings they assume (real and ideal), and the nature of the collapse process - a packing transition upon a change to the effective stress in a media of double porosity. Particle packing science has made little progress in geoscience discipline - since the initial packing paradigms set by Graton and Fraser (1935) - nevertheless is relatively well-established in the soft matter physics discipline. The collapse process can be represented by mathematical modelling of packing – including the Monte Carlo simulations - but relating representation to process remains difficult. This paper revisits the problem of sudden packing transition from a micro-physico-mechanical viewpoint (i.e. collapse imetan terms of structure-based effective stress). This cross-disciplinary approach helps in generalization on collapsible soils to be made that suggests loess is the only truly collapsible soil, because it is only loess which is so totally influenced by the packing essence of the formation process.

The Immense Journey: Loess Hills Cultural Resources Study, 2011

Known as one of North America’s natural treasures, the Loess Hills is also one of our country’s archaeological gems. This unique landscape harbors hundreds of well-preserved earth lodge dwellings and palisades villages built by ancestral Plains Indians. The descendants of these early Iowa farmers were first described in the journals and accounts of 18th- and 19th-century travelers and explorers. Celebrated artists, such as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin, forever fixed the vibrant life ways of these people in our mind’s eye. The historical legacy of the Loess Hills lies in a rich archaeological record.

Environmental Mechanics Research in China

By recalling mankind's path during past 50 years in the present article, we mainly highlight the significance of environmental issues today. In particular, two major factors leading to environment deterioration in China such as water resources and coal burning are stressed on. Present-day environmental issues are obviously interdisciplinary, of multiple scales and multi-composition in nature. Therefore, a process-based approach for environment research is absolutely necessarily. A series of sub-processes, either physical, chemical or biological, are subsequently analyzed in order to established reasonable parameterization scheme and credible comprehensive model. And we are now in a position to answer questions still open to us, improve existing somewhat empirical engineering approaches and enhance quantitative accuracy in prediction. To illustrate this process-based research approach, three typical examples associated with the Yangtze River Estuary, Loess Plateau and Tenggeli Desert environments have been dealt with respectively. A theoretical model of vertical flow field accounting for runoff and tide interaction has been established to delineate salinity and sediment motion which are responsible for the formation of mouth bar at the outlet and the ecological evolution there. A kinematic wave theory combined with the revised Green-Ampt infiltration formula is applied to the prediction of runoff generation and erosion in three types of erosion region on the Loess Plateau. Three approaches describing water motion in SPAC system in arid areas at different levels have been improved by introducing vegetation sub-models. However, we have found that the formation of a dry sandy layer and biological crust skin are additional primary causes leading to deterioration of water supply and succession of ecological system.

Modeling on Runoff and Sediment Yield in Small Watersheds

The prediction and estimate of water and soil loss is fundamental important for understanding the effect of the spatial heterogeneity of underlying surfaces and preventing ecological environment deterioration. In this paper, a dynamic model of runoff and sediment yield in small watersheds is established. The proposed model includes three components: runoff generation caused by rainfall, soil erosion on hillslopes by overland flow, and runoff concentration and sediment transport on watersheds. Applying the proposed model, the runoff and sediment yield processes in a typical catchment on the loess plateau was estimated, which exhibited a good agreement between predicted results and observation.

A study of the proposed Diamond Creek Reservoir

Politically the Colorado river is an interstate as well as an international stream. Physically the basin divides itself distinctly into three sections. The upper section from head waters to the mouth of San Juan comprises about 40 percent of the total of the basin and affords about 87 percent of the total runoff, or an average of about 15 000 000 acre feet per annum. High mountains and cold weather are found in this section. The middle section from the mouth of San Juan to the mouth of the Williams comprises about 35 percent of the total area of the basin and supplies about 7 percent of the annual runoff. Narrow canyons and mild weather prevail in this section. The lower third of the basin is composed of mainly hot arid plains of low altitude. It comprises some 25 percent of the total area of the basin and furnishes about 6 percent of the average annual runoff.

The proposed Diamond Creek reservoir is located in the middle section and is wholly within the boundary of Arizona. The site is at the mouth of Diamond Creek and is only 16 m. from Beach Spring, a station on the Santa Fe railroad. It is solely a power project with a limited storage capacity. The dam which creats the reservoir is of the gravity type to be constructed across the river. The walls and foundation are of granite. For a dam of 290 feet in height, the back water will be about 25 m. up the river.

The power house will be placed right below the dam perpendicular to the axis of the river. It is entirely a concrete structure. The power installation would consist of eighteen 37 500 H.P. vertical, variable head turbines, directly connected to 28 000 kwa. 110 000 v. 3 phase, 60 cycle generators with necessary switching and auxiliary apparatus. Each unit is to be fed by a separate penstock wholly embedded into the masonry.

Concerning the power market, the main electric transmission lines would extend to Prescott, Phoenix, Mesa, Florence etc. The mining regions of the mountains of Arizona would be the most adequate market. The demand of power in the above named places might not be large at present. It will, from the observation of the writer, rapidly increase with the wonderful advancement of all kinds of industrial development.

All these things being comparatively feasible, there is one difficult problem: that is the silt. At the Diamond Creek dam site the average annual silt discharge is about 82 650 acre feet. The geographical conditions, however, will not permit silt deposites right in the reservoir. So this design will be made under the assumption given in Section 4.

The silt condition and the change of lower course of the Colorado are much like those of the Yellow River in China. But one thing is different. On the Colorado most of the canyon walls are of granite, while those on the Yellow are of alluvial loess: so it is very hard, if not impossible, to get a favorable dam site on the lower part. As a visitor to this country, I should like to see the full development of the Colorado: but how about THE YELLOW!

黄土高原丘陵沟壑区小流域优化生态-生产范式

黄土丘陵沟壑区是黄土高原的主体部分，也是具有特殊景观格局的生态-经济敏感区，保护环境、发展生产始终是其面临的双重任务。小流域既是区域的优势景观单元。文章试以小流域为基础，研究黄土丘陵沟壑区的优化生态-生产范式。根据内容，论文可分为5个部分： 首先，论文系统总结了黄土高原的几个主要特点，如黄土地貌，土壤侵蚀等。本章节重点介绍了小流域治理的发展历程及其特点，以及小流域的治理现状。其次，综合阐述了黄土高原丘陵沟壑区的生态经济背景，指出：小流域为黄土丘陵沟壑区的优势景观单元，是区域治理与发展的基本单元;并提出区域治理与开发的生态与生产定位。第三，详细研究了区域小流域景观生态学特点;同时探讨了作为一个复合生态系统，小流域景观功能及其发展变化特点。结合第二部分，提出了黄土丘陵沟壑区小流域优化生态-生产范式的5项原则。第四，具体分析了安塞纸坊沟流域自然资源环境与社会经济基础，依据范式建立的原则，根据净第一性生产力等环境、社会经济等指标，建立流域的优化生态-经济空间结构。最后，在第四部分的基础上，提出区域小流域优化生态-生产范式的空间体系组成以及组成范式的关键措施和核心组分。

黄土高原植被恢复与新产业带形成的生态学基础研究

从生态地理背景论草地畜牧业产业在黄土高原农业可持续发展中的战略地位 黄土高原要实现生态与生产双赢的目标，契机是退耕还林还草，突破口是建立能兼顾生态生产协调发展的主导产业。从地形地貌、水热分布及自然植被特征的角度分析，黄土高原实施以农为主或农林牧综合发展的方略，均有悖于黄土高原生态地理背景。而草地畜牧业产业的生产要素及其过程在较大程度上吻合了黄土高原的生态地理背景，具有生态的适应性和生产的有效性，应作为黄土高原优化的生态生产范式建制中的主导产业。未来黄土高原产业的发展格局应该是以草地畜牧业为主导，农业和林业作为补充和完善的产业发展体系。此外，未来黄土高原草地畜牧业家畜养殖应以舍饲为主。 黄土高原自然植被演替过程中的物种特征与土壤养分动态研究 在3—149年的时间尺度上，对黄土高原自然植被次生演替过程中物种特征和土壤养分动态进行了研究。结果表明：1）随着演替时间尺度的延伸，土壤全C、全N含量呈增加趋势，而土壤全K、全Na和土壤pH值呈下降趋势，土壤全P变化趋势不明显;此外，表层( 0~10 cm)土壤Ca0含量呈下降趋势，深层( 20-30 cm，40-50 cm)则呈增加趋势。演替过程对土壤养分动态影响的程度随着取样深度的增加而减弱;2）植物群落物种丰富度在演替的中间阶段最高，后者对应于中等土壤养分水平;3）在演替的早期阶段，植物群落优势种往往具有稳定的土壤种子库，CR-生活史对策和S．繁殖对策，在贫瘠的土壤上具有较强的竞争能力;而具有较强的水平扩展能力和克隆繁殖能力，C-生活史对策、对土壤C，N具有较强竞争能力的多年生植物在演替中后期占据群落的优势地位。此外，在所涉及的物种生物学特征中，多年生生活史，C-、CR-、SC-、SR-、S．对策，以及R-、W-、Bs-、VBs-和V-繁殖对策等在非优势物种中有较高的出现频率。4）C-、 SC-对策，克隆能力，多年生生活史，水平扩展能力，种子的动物传播方式，秋季开花，荚果、坚果等特征的比例在一定程度上与土壤全C，全N和全K含量正相关; 而S一、SR-、R-、CR-对策，一、二年生生活史，种子繁殖，S．繁殖对策，以及胞果、蒴果等特征的比例与土壤全Na，Ca0含量和土壤pH正相关。在演替过程中出现的物种均属草本植物生活型，因此，草原可能是黄土高原上受制于大尺度环境条件（显域生境）下的优势植被类型（特别是降雨量不超过550 mm的地区）。 黄土高原植被恢复过程中几种优势植物叶片碳稳定性同位素和氮含量的动态特征 探讨了黄土高原植被恢复过程中六种优势植物叶片碳稳定性同位素(6 13C)和氮含量的季节动态、种间差异及其与植被恢复过程的关系。六种优势植物分别是猪毛蒿( Artemisia scoparia)，出现在演替的先锋阶段：达乌里胡枝子( Lespedeza davurica)，出现在演替的第二阶段;长芒草(Stipabungeana)、万年蒿(Artemisia gmelinii)和茭蒿(Artemisia giraldii)，出现在演替的第三阶段; 白羊草( Bothriochloa ischaemun)出现在演替的顶级阶段。六种优势植物叶片碳稳定性同位素比率分别是-26.89±0.66‰，-26.24±0.48‰, -26.21±0.49‰, -26.86±1.09‰, -27.61±0.39‰和-15 .81±1. 79‰;氮含量分别是2.36±0.63%，2.38±0.29%，2.0±0.29%，2.0±0.25%，1.50±0.37% 和1.24±0.19%。白羊草、长芒草、茭蒿和达乌里胡枝子叶片氮含量季节变化与土壤水分呈正相关．猪毛蒿和铁杆蒿叶片氮含量季节变化与土壤水分呈负相关。白羊草叶片δ 13C与土壤水分呈正相关，而其他5个优势种叶片δ 13C与土壤水分呈负相关。不同演替阶段优势种的δ 13C值和氮含量特征表明：处于演替顶级阶段的优势种具有最高的水分利用效率，净光合产量较低，但光合作用动态对土壤水分的季节波动表现出较强的可塑性;相反，处于先锋阶段的优势种水分利用效率较低，叶片净光合产量较高，光合作用对土壤水分波动的可塑性较低。本文的主要结论是：黄土高原植被恢复过程中处于不同演替阶段的优势种无论是在叶片δ 13C，氮含量均存在差异。优势种叶片δ 13C和氮含量季节动态反映了不同物种在环境（主要指土壤水分）波动条件下的生理生态对策。具有最高的水分利用效率（而非最高光和能力）和最高光合可塑性的物种将成为黄土高原自然植被顶级植物群落中的最终统治者。 黄土高原草地畜牧业产业形成与发展的牧草生产力基础 遵循生产-生态兼顾的原则，在黄土高原197个区县土地利用方式重新规划的基础上，对支撑黄土高原畜牧业产业形成与发展的牧草生产潜力进行了分析预测。结果表明：规划的牧、林、农、果用地占生产用地的比例分别是草地44%、林地22%、基本农田20%、果园14%; 197个县区预测的总牧草生产潜力达1，0488，1028t.y-l，可载畜1，0488，1028个羊单位．y-1。按1999年不变价格计算，黄土高原预测的畜牧业总产值将达到524，4051万元．y-1，是1999年畜牧业总产值的5.3倍，超过1999年黄土高原农业总产值14 %。农业人口人均预测畜牧业产值大于1000元的区县占59%;小于1000元的区县占41%。此外，黄土高原预测的农业总产值将达到1147.2234亿元RMB.yr-1。畜牧业、果业、林业和基本农田产值占农业总产值的比例分别是46%、27%、14%和13%。随着畜牧业产业链的逐步建立与完善，产业发展布局的日趋合理，黄土高原畜牧业生产总值将有较大幅度的提高。黄土高原草地畜牧业蕴藏着巨大的发展潜力，有望成为黄土高原优化的生产．生态范式建制中的主导产业。

补充灌溉及氮磷配施对黄土塬区冬小麦水分利用及产量的影响

采用裂区试验设计,对黄土塬区补充灌溉及氮磷配施条件下麦田土壤水分动态、作物产量及水分利用效率等进行研究。结果表明:1)冬小麦对土壤水分的利用深度随小麦生长发育逐渐加深,在越冬前期和孕穗期分别达1.2和2.2 m土层以下,不同处理土壤含水量在小麦生育前期差异不明显,孕穗后氮磷配施处理的土壤含水量显著低于不施肥处理;2)试验条件下,补充灌溉后同样施肥处理的作物产量与雨养相比,虽有增加但不显著;不论是雨养水平,还是补充灌溉水平,氮磷配施均表现出显著的增产效果,从低氮低磷到高氮高磷,增产幅度在134%到240%之间;3)氮磷配施能显著提高冬小麦水分利用效率,而补充灌溉后水分利用效率降低3%~30%,但未达显著水平;4)不同氮磷配施的增产效应高于补充灌溉,补充灌溉与高氮高磷处理有显著的水肥协同效应,能显著提高作物产量并保持较高的水分利用效率。

施肥对黄土旱塬区黑垆土土壤肥力及硝态氮累积的影响

本文以长期定位试验为依托,研究了黄土高原旱塬区黑垆土大田对比试验和长期定位施肥对土壤肥力及硝态氮累积和淋溶的影响。结果表明:长期施用有机肥能够明显增加土壤养分,氮磷和有机肥配施效果显著;和1984年土壤养分状况相比,大田对比试验土壤有机质增加了27.1%,全氮和全磷提高了84.2%和34.8%,有效氮、有效磷和速效钾增加了46.9%、540.0%和10.2%,养分水平与长期定位试验中氮磷配施相近。长期定位试验中氮磷配施或与有机肥配施能够有效地减少土壤剖面中硝酸盐的累积和淋溶,氮肥单施硝态氮累积量最大,为1006.4kg/hm2,大田对比试验土壤硝态氮总累积量较长期定位试验中施用氮肥处理的总累积量少。

PAA对不同土壤保水和蒸发性能的影响

采用土柱法研究了不同PAA施入量对3种黄土高原主要土壤类型(黄绵土、黑垆土和塿土)的持水性能、土壤饱和导水率和土壤蒸发量的影响,以进一步阐明PAA的保水和蒸发作用。结果表明,施入PAA提高了土壤的持水性能。在未加入PAA之前黑垆土的持水性能最低,塿土的最高,黄绵土的次之;加入PAA后,黑垆土的持水能力显著增加,几乎为对照的2倍,塿土和黄绵土也都比对照高。土壤的供水能力随PAA用量的增加而增强,不同土壤类型之间表现为:塿土>黑垆土>黄绵土。未加入PAA时,3种土壤饱和导水率大小为:塿土>黑垆土>黄绵土;加入PAA后,3种土壤的饱和导水率都降低,且基本随PAA用量的增加而降低。在一定水分条件下,PAA的施入提高了土壤的抗蒸发性能,随PAA用量的增加,塿土和黑垆土的土壤蒸发量增加,但都低于对照,而黄绵土的土壤蒸发量随PAA用量的增加而降低。其中施PAA54.5 mg/kg的塿土、黑垆土和施PAA225.8 mg/kg的黄绵土与对照相比,土壤蒸发量分别减少了44.0%,44.6%和30.6%。

黄土高原水土流失治理进展及其对策

黄土高原地区水土流失类型复杂,既有自然因素和人为因素,也有水力、风力、重力产生的变化。同时气候干旱、水资源缺乏成为植物生长和生态环境改善的最大障碍。在国家实施西部大开发的进程中,良好的生态环境成为生存与发展和建设小康社会的标志。无论从西部大开发的战略角度考虑,还是从退耕还林(草)政策实施8年以后,如何解决黄土高原地区人民群众衣食住行、经济发展问题及黄河减沙的角度来看,采取有效措施,加快该区的生态建设已势在必行。根据第十一个五年规划的建议,以生态恢复学和土壤侵蚀学的基本原理为指导,分析了黄土高原地区的重要性,探讨了黄土高原生态建设与经济发展的基本现状,因地制宜地提出了发展对策。

半干旱区人工林地土壤入渗过程分析

森林是陆地生态系统最高大的植物群落,是维护陆地生态系统平衡的主要力量。穿过林冠到达地表面的雨水,要么通过空隙进入土壤形成土壤水,要么沿坡面流失形成地表径流。进入土壤的水分,或存储在土体内供植物吸收和利用,或在垂直入渗过程中改变方向形成壤中流,或穿过土层形成深层渗漏补给地下水。近年来,黄土高原大部分地区人工林地林水关系失调,在多年生人工林草地出现了以土壤旱化为主要特征的土壤退化现象。由于黄土高原大部分人工林地的地下水埋藏较深,水资源缺乏,无灌溉条件,因此林地土壤水分主要依靠天然降雨补给,林水关系调控只能依据土壤水分补给和存储情况决定。目前,根系利用土层土壤水分与植物生长的动态关系又成为生态需水研究的一个核心问题[1]。因此研究半干旱地区人工林地土壤入渗过程,确定土壤水分入渗深度和入渗量,对于可持续利用土壤水资源,防治土壤旱化,改善土壤水分与植被生长关系均具重要意义。测定土壤入渗的方法有直接测法和间接测定法。刘向东等采用流水型下渗仪,测定了宁夏南部的六盘山区主要森林植被类型原状土入渗速率[2]。双环入渗仪[3]是国内外常用的一种测定入渗的方法。但是这种方法不能用于山坡地。在双环入土时,对土壤,特别是表层土壤产生破...

植物生长与土壤水关系调控起始期

确定植物生长与土壤水关系调控起始期是可持续利用土壤水资源的基础。以柠条为研究对象,采用中子仪对黄土丘陵半干旱区撂荒地,1～5年生柠条林生长和土壤水分进行长期定位观测和分析。结果表明:1 a内,随着时间推移,柠条利用土壤水分深度从播种时的表层土壤增加到220 cm;随着林龄增加,除丰水年2年生柠条林地土壤储水量增加外,柠条利用土壤水分深度和耗水量增加,林地土壤储水量下降。在2004年生长末期,3年生柠条林地100 cm土层的土壤含水量低于萎蔫系数,4年生柠条林地土壤旱化加剧,柠条生长与土壤水关系调控起始期是第5年。此时需要调控柠条生长与土壤水关系,采取措施降低柠条水分耗水量,实现土壤水资源可持续利用。

黄土区人工与天然植被对凋落物量和土壤有机碳变化的影响

在黄土丘陵区选择从耕地、草地、灌木林到乔木林样地,不同样地内设立1m×1m(乔木10m×10m)的样方,分析样方内凋落物积累量、碳氮含量、土壤有机碳(SOC)和可溶性碳(DOC)含量变化。结果表明:天然草地、灌木林、乔木林凋落物积累量依次为5.3,12.1和32.4t.hm-2;但人工灌木林和乔木林的凋落物积累量分别为6.7和11.4t.hm-2,分别是天然灌木林和乔木林的1/2和1/3。随着植被的恢复,天然植被凋落物的C/N高于人工植被(刺槐林除外)。与耕地SOC(4.67g·kg-1)相比,天然灌木林地SOC提高5.9倍,人工灌木林地提高1.8倍;天然乔木林地提高8.0倍,而人工乔木林地仅提高4.0倍。凋落物积累量与0～20cm土层土壤有机碳存在显著线性相关关系(R2>0.83),但20cm以下线性相关关系不显著。凋落物积累量与0～10cm土壤可溶性碳含量存在显著线性相关关系(R2>0.893),与10～60cm土层线性相关关系不显著,与80～100cm土壤可溶性碳存在显著线性负相关关系。

高产抗旱优质谷子新品种辐谷7号的选育与推广利

利用400Gy 60Co γ射线处理87070谷子品系干种子,选育出辐谷7号新品种。该品种具有株型紧凑、茎秆矮、高产抗旱优质并且适应种植地区广等特点。2002年2月通过陕西省农作物品种审定委员会审定,截止2008年在黄土高原地区累计推广10.8万hm2。