La invención de la diferencia costarricense, 1810-1870

Resumen En este artículo el autor ratrea el proceso de formación de los principales atributos de la nación costarricense y procura determinar cuales eran los sentidos de pertenencia en Costa Rica en el perido de 1810-1870 Abstract In this article the author traces the process of formation of the principal attributes of the Costa Rica nation, and determines which were the meanings of belonging in Costa Rica in the period 1810-1870.

A lava park in Spain

The lava park is surrounded by the volcanic mountains of Les Preses, revealed as the edges of a vast caldera and repeated at a human scale with low walls made up of small volcanic boulders. These walls are evidence of how successive communities have gradually worked amongst this lava flow to create arable land, supported by rich soils. The people saw the land prosper and learned how to maximise its productivity. Boulders that had come to the surface during agricultural cultivation were moved with human labour to create "artigas“, the characteristic pilings of volcanic stone. They have been used to raise and lower areas, to create shelter and exposure for their crops and to make caves for storage. Amongst all this, paths weave and cross. The whole place is made up of grey and black rocks with a constant cover of green crops or grass.

4th Biennal Europea De Paisatge Barcelona, Spain March 22-26, 2006

Between the 22nd and the 26th of March 2006, Barcelona hosted the 4th Biennal Europea de Paisatge (European Biennial of Landscape Architecture). It comprised a day of presentations for the Rosa Barba Prize for European Landscape Architecture, a day long symposium, and a half day discussion on IBA park projects. Approximately 300 people attended, including sizable groups from Barcelona, France, The Netherlands, Denmark, and Germany. Only three participants from English speaking countries were present, despite simultaneous translation into English throughout.

¡Latin jazz! : a syncretic journey from Spain, Cuba, the United States and back

The creative work, ¡Latin Jazz! is a 50 minute radio documentary to be broadcast on ABC Classic FM. It looks at the evolution of Latin jazz from Spain, Cuba and the United States. It examines the social effects on the style and specifically on the syncretic movement between the countries. The documentary traces my travel to Madrid, Spain and looks at Latin jazz through a deconstruction of the style, musical examples and interviews with prominent artists. Artists interviewed were Chano Domínguez, a Spanish flamenco jazz pianist, Bobby Martínez an American saxophonist, Alain Pérez a Cuban bassist and Pepe Rivero a Cuban pianist. The exegesis supports the radio documentary by examining the style in more depth, and is broken into three main sections. First it traces the historical relationship that occurred through the Ida y Vuelta (To and Fro), the similarities and influences through the habanera, the decíma and the religion of Santería. This is followed by specific musical elements within Latin jazz such as instrumentation, clave, harmony and improvisation, whilst the third section looks at the influences of the new syncretic movement back to Spain.

The evolution of tax morale in modern Spain

This paper studies the evolution of tax morale in Spain in the post-France era. In contrast to the previous tax compliance literature, the current paper investigates tax morale as the dependent variable and attempts to answer what actually shapes tax morale. Te analysis uses suevey data from two sources; the World Values Survey and the European Values Survey, allowing us to observe tax morale in Spain for the years 1981,1990, 1995 and 1999/2000. The sutudy of evolution of tax morale in Spain over nearly a 20-year span is particularly interesting because the political and fiscal system evolved very rapidly during this period.

Networking of shear zones at the brittle-to-viscous transition (Cap de Creus, NE Spain)

A crustal-scale shear zone network at the fossil brittle-to-viscous transition exposed at Cap de Creus, NE Spain evolved by coeval fracturing and viscous, mylonitic overprinting of an existing foliation. Initial fracturing led to mylonitic shearing as rock softened in ductilely deformed zones surrounding the fractures. Mylonitic shear zones widened by lateral branching of fractures from these shear zones and by synthetic rotation of the existing foliation between the fractures and shear zones. Shear zones lengthened by a combination of fracturing and mylonitic shearing in front of the shear zone tips. Shear zones interconnected along and across their shearing planes, separating rhomb-shaped lozenges of less deformed rock. Lozenges were subsequently incorporated into the mylonitic shear zones by widening in the manner described above. In this way, deformation became homogeneous on the scale of initial fracturing (metre- to decametre-scale). In contrast, the shear zone network represents localisation of strain on a decametre-length scale. The strength of the continental crust at the time of coeval fracturing and viscous shearing is inferred to have decreased with time and strain, as fracturing evolved to mylonitic shearing, and as the shear zones coalesced to form a through-going network subparallel to the shearing plane. Crustal strength must therefore be considered as strain- and scale-dependent.

Community Pharmacies and the Needs of Mobile EU Citizens - A study on Finns living in Spain

Migration within the European Union (EU) has increased since the Union was established. Community pharmacies provide open access to health care services and can be the first, most frequently used or even the only contact with a nation s health care system among mobile community residents. In some of the mass-migration areas in Southern Europe, most of the customers may represent mobile citizens of foreign background. This has not always been taken into consideration in the development of community pharmacy services. Mobile patients have been on the EU's health policy agenda, but they have seldom been mentioned in the context of community pharmacies. In most of the EU member states, governments control the specific legislation concerning community pharmacies and there is no harmonised pharmaceutical policy or consistent minimal standards for community pharmacy services in the EU. The aim of this study was to understand medication use, the role of community pharmacies and the symptom mitigation process of mobile community residents. Finns living in Spain were used as an example to examine how community pharmacies in a EU member state meet the needs of mobile community residents. The data were collected by a survey in 2002 (response rate 53%, n= 533) and by five focus group discussions in 2006 (n=30). A large number (70%) of the respondents had moved to Spain for health reasons and suffered from chronic morbidity. Community pharmacies had an important role in the healthcare of mobile community residents and the respondents were mostly satisfied with these services. However, several medication safety risks related to community pharmacy practices were identified: 1) Availability of prescription medicines without prescription (e.g., antibiotics, sleeping pills, Viagra®, asthma medications, cardiovascular medicines, psoriasis medicines and analgesics); 2) Irrational use of medicines (e.g., 41% of antibiotic users had bought their antibiotics without a prescription, and the most common reasons for antibiotic self-medication were symptomatic common colds and sore throats); 3) Language barriers between patients and pharmacy professionals; 4) Lack of medication counselling; 5) Unqualified pharmacy personnel providing pharmacotherapy. A fifth of the respondents reported experiencing problems during pharmacy visits in Spain, and the lack of a common language was the source of most of these problems. The findings of this study indicate that regulations and their enforcement can play a crucial role in actually assuring the rational and safe use of medicines. These results can be used in the development of pharmaceutical and healthcare policies in the EU. It is important to define consistent minimum standards for community pharmacy services in the EU. Then, the increasing number of mobile community residents could access safe and high quality health care services, including community pharmacy services, in every member state within the EU.

Philippson-Gottschalk Family Collection 1810-1842

Letters and documents of Philippson-Gottschalk family, primarily famly affairs.

Variability in exposure to ambient ultrafine particles in urban schools: Comparative assessment between Australia and Spain

Ambient ultrafine particle number concentrations (PNC) have inhomogeneous spatio-temporal distributions and depend on a number of different urban factors, including background conditions and distant sources. This paper quantitatively compares exposure to ambient ultrafine particles at urban schools in two cities in developed countries, with high insolation climatic conditions, namely Brisbane (Australia) and Barcelona (Spain). The analysis used comprehensive indoor and outdoor air quality measurements at 25 schools in Brisbane and 39 schools in Barcelona. PNC modes were analysed with respect to ambient temperature, land use and urban characteristics, combined with the measured elemental carbon concentrations, NOx (Brisbane) and NO2 (Barcelona). The trends and modes of the quantified weekday average daily cycles of ambient PNC exhibited significant differences between the two cities. PNC increases were observed during traffic rush hours in both cases. However, the mid-day peak was dominant in Brisbane schools and had the highest contribution to total PNC for both indoors and outdoors. In Barcelona, the contribution from traffic was highest for ambient PNC, while the mid-day peak had a slightly higher contribution for indoor concentrations. Analysis of the relationships between PNC and land use characteristics in Barcelona schools showed a moderate correlation with the percentage of road network area and an anti-correlation with the percentage of green area. No statistically significant correlations were found for Brisbane. Overall, despite many similarities between the two cities, school-based exposure patterns were different. The main source of ambient PNC at schools was shown to be traffic in Barcelona and mid-day new particle formation in Brisbane. The mid-day PNC peak in Brisbane could have been driven by the combined effect of background and meteorological conditions, as well as other local/distant sources. The results have implications for urban development, especially in terms of air quality mitigation and management at schools.

Producción de biomasa de nacedero (Trichanthera gigantea) en diferentes escenarios de sombra y frecuencias de cortes, en el Rancho Ebenezer, Niquinohomo, Masaya

Con el objeto de contribuir al uso y manejo de nuevas especies forrajeras como alternativas para la alimentación animal en las condiciones agroclimáticas del municipio de Niquinohomo, específicamente en el Rancho Agropecológico de Especies Menores Ebenezer (RAEME). Se realizó un trabajo investigativo donde se evaluó las características morfoestructurales de nacedero (Trichanthera gigantea), bajo tres escenarios de sombra (umbra, penumbra y a pleno sol) y cuatro frecuencias de corte (30, 60, 90 y 120 días) y su efecto sobre la producción de biomasa y contenido de proteína de nacedero. El estudio se ubicó en la comarca Hoja Chigüe #1 a una distancia de 4 Km al sur del municipio de Niquinohomo, Departamento de Masaya con una altitud de 400 msnm, con latitud de 11° 52′ y longitud de 86°03′ . El promedio de precipitación anual es de 1200 mm, con periodos lluviosos generalmente en los meses de Julio a Noviembre. Con una temperatura mínimas de 22° C y máximas de 38° C, variando estas durante todo el año. Los suelos son de textura franco arcilloso y una profundidad efectiva de 40 cm. Entre las características morfoestructurales, se evaluaron el grosor, altura, número de tallos y rebrotes, para lo cual se realizaron mediciones sobre cinco plantas (para cada condición), sembrados a una distancia de 1 m entre surco y entre planta, las cuales se seleccionaron al azar. Al iniciar el estudio se hizo un corte de uniformidad; después se realizó el corte para cada frecuencia en estudio, cuantificando la producción de forraje comestible (hoja/tallo tierno y la proporción entre ellas). Durante el ensayo no se hizo ninguna aplicación de fertilizante. Se encontró que la producción de biomasa fue mejor cuando los cortes se realizaron cada 120 días, siendo estas mayores cuando estaban en condiciones de sombra y penumbra (31 y 32 t ha-1 respectivamente). En cambio los contenidos de proteína fueron mayores cuando los corteseran menores de 60 días, los cuales fluctuaron entre 20 y 23%. Encontrándose una relación inversa entre la edad de corte y producción de biomasa con respecto al contenido de proteína.

Producción de biomasa de nacedero (Trichanthera gigantea) en diferentes escenarios de sombra y frecuencias de cortes, en el Rancho Ebenezer. Niquinohomo, Masaya

Con el objeto de contribuir al uso y manejo de nuevas especies forrajeras como alternativas para la alimentación animal, se realizó un estudio en el Rancho Agroecológico de Especies Menores Ebenezer (RAEME), ubicado a 4 km del Municipio de Niquinohomo, Departamento de Masaya. El cual está a una altitud de 384 msnm, con latitud norte de 11 °52'25. 1 8" y longitud oeste de 86°05'14.89", precipitación media anual es de 1,200 mm, con periodos lluviosos generalmente en los meses de Julio a Noviembre y con temperaturas mínimas de 22° e y máximas de 38° e, variando estas durante todo el afio. Los suelos son de textura franco arcilloso y una profundidad efectiva de 40 cm. Se utilizaron plantaciones de nacedero (Trichanthera gigantea), bajo tres escenarios de sombra ( 4 hrs sol o penumbra, 8 hrs sol o sombra y más de 8 hrs sol), los que fueron establecidos hacia tres años y tenían espaciamientos de 1 m entre surcos y 1 m entre plantas. Además se realizaron cuatro frecuencias de corte (30, 60, 90 y 120 días). Se evaluaron las características morfoestructurales de nacedero, como: grosor, altura y número de tallos y rebrotes. Así como la producción de biomasa forrajera y el contenido de proteína. Al iniciar el estudio se hizo un corte de uniformidad. Posteriormente se seleccionaron cinco plantas sobre las cuales se evaluaron las características morfoestructurales, la producción de biomasa y el contenido de proteína. Se encontró que los mejores resultados de la morfoestructura de nacedero se presentan bajo condiciones de sombra o 8 hrs sol, seguido de la penumbra o 4 hrs sol, así mismo que la producción de biomasa fue mejor cuando los cortes se realizaron cada 120 días, siendo estas mayores cuando estaban en condiciones de sombra y penumbra (3 l y 32 t ha•' respectivamente). En cambio los contenidos de proteína fueron mayores cuando los intervalos de cortes eran menores (60 días), los cuales fluctuaron entre 20 y 23%. Encontrándose una relación inversa entre la edad de corte y producción de biomasa con respecto al contenido de proteína. Se concluye que el nacedero requiere de sombra para su buen comportamiento morfoestructural y productivo.

El clero argentino durante la Revolución (1810- 1816) según las oraciones patrióticas : análisis de los casos de: Diego Zabaleta, Gregorio Funes, Francisco de Paula Castañeda y Pedro de Castro Barros

Resumen: El presente trabajo es un análisis individual de cada Oración Patriótica enunciada en el título. En cada una de ellas se destaca, como eje de estudio, el lenguaje utilizado y el orden dialéctico que cada personaje propone. El tiempo histórico en que cada uno de los discursos fue pronunciado es también analizado como relación directa a la naturaleza del mensaje. Se busca remarcar además la preeminencia que tuvo el clero criollo como uno de los actores sociales fundamentales del proceso revolucionario.

La Iglesia y el movimiento independentista rioplatense: incertidumbres, aceptación y acompañamiento (1810-1816)

En torno al sexenio comprendido entre las dos fechas distintivas del Bicentenario argentino, 1810 y 1816, el autor se propone una lectura histórica sobre los hombres y las ideas que rodearon a la Primera Junta de gobierno, la función propagandista del clero, el cuestionamiento por parte de dos obispos de la legitimidad de la revolución y el apoyo de un obispo patriota, el período de “interregno episcopal” y la continuidad religiosa, la obra cultural de la Junta y la celebración del Congreso de la Independencia en Tucumán. Se afirma, a partir de las fuentes, el lugar de aceptación que tuvo la IglesiaCatólica en esta época.