Shaping fission yeast with microtubules.

For cell morphogenesis, the cell must establish distinct spatial domains at specified locations at the cell surface. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms of cell polarity in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. These are simple rod-shaped cells that form cortical domains at cell tips for cell growth and at the cell middle for cytokinesis. In both cases, microtubule-based systems help to shape the cell by breaking symmetry, providing endogenous spatial cues to position these sites. The plus ends of dynamic microtubules deliver polarity factors to the cell tips, leading to local activation of the GTPase cdc42p and the actin assembly machinery. Microtubule bundles contribute to positioning the division plane through the nucleus and the cytokinesis factor mid1p. Recent advances illustrate how the spatial and temporal regulation of cell polarization integrates many elements, including historical landmarks, positive and negative controls, and competition between pathways.

Stable transmission of targeted gene modification using single-stranded oligonucleotides with flanking LNAs.

Targeted mutagenesis directed by oligonucleotides (ONs) is a promising method for manipulating the genome in higher eukaryotes. In this study, we have compared gene editing by different ONs on two new target sequences, the eBFP and the rd1 mutant photoreceptor betaPDE cDNAs, which were integrated as single copy transgenes at the same genomic site in 293T cells. Interestingly, antisense ONs were superior to sense ONs for one target only, showing that target sequence can by itself impart strand-bias in gene editing. The most efficient ONs were short 25 nt ONs with flanking locked nucleic acids (LNAs), a chemistry that had only been tested for targeted nucleotide mutagenesis in yeast, and 25 nt ONs with phosphorothioate linkages. We showed that LNA-modified ONs mediate dose-dependent target modification and analyzed the importance of LNA position and content. Importantly, when using ONs with flanking LNAs, targeted gene modification was stably transmitted during cell division, which allowed reliable cloning of modified cells, a feature essential for further applications in functional genomics and gene therapy. Finally, we showed that ONs with flanking LNAs aimed at correcting the rd1 stop mutation could promote survival of photoreceptors in retinas of rd1 mutant mice, suggesting that they are also active in vivo.

Ocular and systemic bio-distribution of rhodamine-conjugated liposomes loaded with VIP injected into the vitreous of Lewis rats.

PURPOSE: Local delivery of therapeutic molecules encapsulated within liposomes is a promising method to treat ocular inflammation. The purpose of the present study was to define the biodistribution of rhodamine-conjugated liposomes loaded with vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), an immunosuppressive neuropeptide, following their intravitreal (IVT) injection in normal rats. METHODS: Healthy seven- to eight-week-old Lewis male rats were injected into the vitreous with empty rhodamine-conjugated liposomes (Rh-Lip) or with VIP-loaded Rh-Lip (VIP-Rh-Lip; 50 mM of lipids with an encapsulation efficiency of 3.0+/-0.4 mmol VIP/mol lipids). Twenty-four h after IVT injection, the eyes, the cervical, mesenteric, and inguinal lymph nodes (LN), and spleen were collected. The phenotype and distribution of cells internalizing Rh-Lip and VIP-Rh-Lip were studied. Determination of VIP expression in ocular tissues and lymphoid organs and interactions with T cells in cervical LN was performed on whole mounted tissues and frozen tissue sections by immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. RESULTS: In the eye, 24 h following IVT injection, fluorescent liposomes (Rh-Lip and VIP-Rh-Lip) were detected mainly in the posterior segment of the eye (vitreous, inner layer of the retina) and to a lesser extent at the level of the iris root and ciliary body. Liposomes were internalized by activated retinal Müller glial cells, ocular tissue resident macrophages, and rare infiltrating activated macrophages. In addition, fluorescent liposomes were found in the episclera and conjunctiva where free VIP expression was also detected. In lymphoid organs, Rh-Lip and VIP-Rh-Lip were distributed almost exclusively in the cervical lymph nodes (LN) with only a few Rh-Lip-positive cells detected in the spleen and mesenteric LN and none in the inguinal LN. In the cervical LN, Rh-Lip were internalized by resident ED3-positive macrophages adjacent to CD4 and CD8-positive T lymphocytes. Some of these T lymphocytes in close contact with macrophages containing VIP-Rh-Lip expressed VIP. CONCLUSIONS: Liposomes are specifically internalized by retinal Müller glial cells and resident macrophages in the eye. A limited passage of fluorescent liposomes from the vitreous to the spleen via the conventional outflow pathway and the venous circulation was detected. The majority of fluorescent liposomes deposited in the conjunctiva following IVT injection reached the subcapsular sinus of the cervical LN via conjuntival lymphatics. In the cervical LN, Rh-Lip were internalized by resident subcapsular sinus macrophages adjacent to T lymphocytes. Detection of VIP in both macrophages and T cells in cervical LN suggests that IVT injection of VIP-Rh-Lip may increase ocular immune privilege by modulating the loco-regional immune environment. In conclusion, our observations suggest that IVT injection of VIP-loaded liposomes is a promising therapeutic strategy to dampen ocular inflammation by modulating macrophage and T cell activation mainly in the loco-regional immune system.

Nonsense Mutations in FAM161A Cause RP28-Associated Recessive Retinitis Pigmentosa.

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a degenerative disease of the retina leading to progressive loss of vision and, in many instances, to legal blindness at the end stage. The RP28 locus was assigned in 1999 to the short arm of chromosome 2 by homozygosity mapping in a large Indian family segregating autosomal-recessive RP (arRP). Following a combined approach of chromatin immunoprecipitation and parallel sequencing of genomic DNA, we identified a gene, FAM161A, which was shown to carry a homozygous nonsense mutation (p.Arg229X) in patients from the original RP28 pedigree. Another homozygous FAM161A stop mutation (p.Arg437X) was detected in three subjects from a cohort of 118 apparently unrelated German RP patients. Age at disease onset in these patients was in the second to third decade, with severe visual handicap in the fifth decade and legal blindness in the sixth to seventh decades. FAM161A is a phylogenetically conserved gene, expressed in the retina at relatively high levels and encoding a putative 76 kDa protein of unknown function. In the mouse retina, Fam161a mRNA is developmentally regulated and controlled by the transcription factor Crx, as demonstrated by chromatin immunoprecipitation and organotypic reporter assays on explanted retinas. Fam161a protein localizes to photoreceptor cells during development, and in adult animals it is present in the inner segment as well as the outer plexiform layer of the retina, the synaptic interface between photoreceptors and their efferent neurons. Taken together, our data indicate that null mutations in FAM161A are responsible for the RP28-associated arRP.

Geometric control of the cell cycle.

How do cells sense their own size and shape? And how does this information regulate progression of the cell cycle? Our group, in parallel to that of Paul Nurse, have recently demonstrated that fission yeast cells use a novel geometry-sensing mechanism to couple cell length perception with entry into mitosis. These rod-shaped cells measure their own length by using a medially-placed sensor, Cdr2, that reads a protein gradient emanating from cell tips, Pom1, to control entry into mitosis. Budding yeast cells use a similar molecular sensor to delay entry into mitosis in response to defects in bud morphogenesis. Metazoan cells also modulate cell proliferation in response to their own shape by sensing tension. Here I discuss the recent results obtained for the fission yeast system and compare them to the strategies used by these other organisms to perceive their own morphology.

LKB1 regulates polarity remodeling and adherens junction formation in the Drosophila eye.

The serine-threonine kinase LKB1 regulates cell polarity from Caenorhabditis elegans to man. Loss of lkb1 leads to a cancer predisposition, known as Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome. Biochemical analysis indicates that LKB1 can phosphorylate and activate a family of AMPK- like kinases, however, the precise contribution of these kinases to the establishment and maintenance of cell polarity is still unclear. Recent studies propose that LKB1 acts primarily through the AMP kinase to establish and/or maintain cell polarity. To determine whether this simple model of how LKB1 regulates cell polarity has relevance to complex tissues, we examined lkb1 mutants in the Drosophila eye. We show that adherens junctions expand and apical, junctional, and basolateral domains mix in lkb1 mutants. Surprisingly, we find LKB1 does not act primarily through AMPK to regulate cell polarity in the retina. Unlike lkb1 mutants, ampk retinas do not show elongated rhabdomeres or expansion of apical and junctional markers into the basolateral domain. In addition, nutrient deprivation does not reveal a more dramatic polarity phenotype in lkb1 photoreceptors. These data suggest that AMPK is not the primary target of LKB1 during eye development. Instead, we find that a number of other AMPK-like kinase, such as SIK, NUAK, Par-1, KP78a, and KP78b show phenotypes similar to weak lkb1 loss of function in the eye. These data suggest that in complex tissues, LKB1 acts on an array of targets to regulate cell polarity.

Reduced choroidal neovascularization by AAV-anti-VEGF shRNA delivery

VEGF plays an essential role in ocular angiogenic diseases including the late-stage form of AMD, the primary cause of vision loss in the western world. Over-expression of VEGF leads to development of vasculature emanating from the choroid, invading the subretinal space through breaks in Bruch's membrane. Strategies leading to long-term suppression of inappropriate ocular angiogenesis are required. A panel of 10 shRNAs targeting the coding region of human VEGF165 was tested in HEK293 cells and in the human retinal pigment epithelial cell line, ARPE-19. VEGF knock-down up to 92% was achieved by co-transfecting shRNAexpressing constructs with plasmid encoding the Renilla luciferase gene fused to the VEGF165 sequence. For in vivo delivery of the most potent shRNA cassette, both single-stranded and self-complementary rAAV vectors were packaged in serotype 8 capsids. Intramuscular administration in mice led to localized expression and 96% knock-down of endogenous VEGF. Using eGFP as a marker, efficient gene transfer of retinal pigment epithelial cells, the cells thought to be responsible for the abnormal VEGF production, was obtained by subretinal delivery of rAAV2.8 vectors. The capacity of rAAV-encoded shRNAs to silence endogenous VEGF gene expression was evaluated in the laser-induced murine model of choroidal neovascularization (CNV). In this mouse model of AMD, sizes of the CNV were found to be significantly reduced following rAAV-shRNA subretinal delivery. Thus, our results indicate that gene transfer combining AAV-mediated delivery with triggering of the endogenous RNAi pathway can be used for anti-VEGF therapy and holds great promise for the treatment of AMD.

Suprachoroidal electrotransfer: a nonviral gene delivery method to transfect the choroid and the retina without detaching the retina.

Photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelial cells (RPE) targeting remains challenging in ocular gene therapy. Viral gene transfer, the only method having reached clinical evaluation, still raises safety concerns when administered via subretinal injections. We have developed a novel transfection method in the adult rat, called suprachoroidal electrotransfer (ET), combining the administration of nonviral plasmid DNA into the suprachoroidal space with the application of an electrical field. Optimization of injection, electrical parameters and external electrodes geometry using a reporter plasmid, resulted in a large area of transfected tissues. Not only choroidal cells but also RPE, and potentially photoreceptors, were efficiently transduced for at least a month when using a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter. No ocular complications were recorded by angiographic, electroretinographic, and histological analyses, demonstrating that under selected conditions the procedure is devoid of side effects on the retina or the vasculature integrity. Moreover, a significant inhibition of laser induced-choroidal neovascularization (CNV) was achieved 15 days after transfection of a soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-1 (sFlt-1)-encoding plasmid. This is the first nonviral gene transfer technique that is efficient for RPE targeting without inducing retinal detachment. This novel minimally invasive nonviral gene therapy method may open new prospects for human retinal therapies.

Bartonella apis sp. nov., a honey bee gut symbiont of the class Alphaproteobacteria.

Here, we report the culture and characterization of an alphaproteobacterium of the order Rhizobiales, isolated from the gut of the honey bee Apis mellifera. Strain PEB0122T shares >95 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with species of the genus Bartonella, a group of mammalian pathogens transmitted by bloodsucking arthropods. Phylogenetic analyses showed that PEB0122T and related strains from the honey bee gut form a sister clade of the genus Bartonella. Optimal growth of strain PEB0122T was obtained on solid media supplemented with defibrinated sheep blood under microaerophilic conditions at 35-37 °C, which is consistent with the cultural characteristics of other species of the genus Bartonella. Reduced growth of strain PEB0122T also occurred under aerobic conditions. The rod-shaped cells of strain PEB0122T had a mean length of 1.2-1.8 μm and revealed hairy surface structures. Strain PEB0122T was positive for catalase, cytochrome c oxidase, urease and nitrate reductase. The fatty acid composition was comparable to those of other species of the genus Bartonella, with palmitic acid (C16 : 0) and isomers of 18- and 19-carbon chains being the most abundant. The genomic DNA G+C content of PEB0122T was determined to be about 45.5 mol%. The high 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with species of Bartonella and its close phylogenetic position suggest that strain PEB0122T represents a novel species within the genus Bartonella, for which we propose the name Bartonella apis sp. nov. The type strain is PEB0122T ( = NCIMB 14961T = DSM 29779T).

Expression et localisation du système endocannabinoïde dans la rétine du singe

Les effets de la marijuana, un médicament utilisé par l’homme depuis des millénaires, sur le système visuel sont peu connus. Une meilleure connaissance de la distribution du système endocannabinoïde (eCB) de la rétine pourrait expliquer comment cette drogue affecte la vision. Cette étude vise à caractériser la distribution du récepteur cannabinoïde CB1 (CB1R) et de l’enzyme de dégradation FAAH (“fatty acid amide hydrolase”) des ligands du CB1R dans la rétine du singe Vert (Chlorocebus sabaeus). De plus, elle vise à déterminer quelles sous-populations cellulaires de la rétine expriment ces composantes. La plupart des études à ce jour ont été conduites surtout sur les rongeurs et peu de travaux ont été réalisés chez le singe. Notre étude vient donc combler cette carence. Par le biais de méthodes immunohistochimiques, nous avons investigué la localisation du CB1R et de l’enzyme FAAH à différentes excentricités rétiniennes, de la fovéa centralis vers la périphérie. Nos résultats, en accord avec notre hypothèse de travail, démontrent que CB1R et FAAH sont exprimés à travers toute la rétine mais avec, cependant, des différences notoires. Au niveau de la couche des photorécepteurs, CB1R est exprimé préférentiellement dans les cônes et ce patron d’expression suit la distribution des photorécepteurs centre-périphérie. De plus, CB1R se retrouve surtout dans les pédicules des cônes de la couche plexiforme externe. CB1R et FAAH sont abondants dans les cellules bipolaires tant au centre qu’en périphérie. Le soma et l’axone des cellules ganglionnaires expriment aussi CB1R et FAAH. Ces données suggèrent que le système eCB est présent à travers toute la rétine du primate et pourrait expliquer les perturbations visuelles entrainées par la marijuana, telles la photosensibilité et la vision des couleurs.

Longer wavelengths of light improve the growth, intake and feed efficiency of individually reared juvenile pikeperch Sander lucioperca (L.)

We tested the effects of monochromatic light on the specific growth rate (SGR), feed intake and feed efficiency (FE) of juvenile pikeperch, Sander lucioperca (L.). Pikeperch were reared individually for 42 days in aquaria covered with blue, green, yellow or red gelatin filters or white paper (control; n=5). Linear regression analysis indicated a significant positive effect of longer wavelengths of light on the condition factor (CF), FE and SGR. The final weight, SGR and CF were significantly higher in fish reared under red than under white light, and FE was better under green, yellow and red light than under white light (Dunnett's post hoc test, P < 0.05) while blue was comparable to white light in terms of the measured parameters. After the growth trial, the spectral sensitivity of photoreceptor cells in the retina was tested using microspectrophotometry, which revealed the presence of rods with lambda(max) at ca. 530 nm and two cone classes, absorbing maximally at ca. 535 and 603 nm, all containing a porphyropsin-based pigment. These results suggest that the presence of mid and long wavelength-sensitive cones enhances visual sensitivity under mid-wavelength and long-wavelength environments, and thus supports the finding that longer wavelengths of incoming light can improve FE and SGR of the cultivated pikeperch.

Expressão gênica diferencial em resposta aos efeitos da proteína anti-inflamatória Anexina A1 nas células epiteliais pigmentadas da retina humana

Pós-graduação em Genética - IBILCE

Avaliação do efeito inflamatório da proteína galectina-1 nas células epiteliais pigmentadas da retina humana (ARPE-19) após ativação por endotoxina

Pós-graduação em Genética - IBILCE

Estruturas do olho do Macrobrachium amazonicum (Heller, 1862) (Crustacea, Decapoda, Palaemonidae): estudo utilizando microscopia óptica e de varredura.

O gênero Macrobrachium contém mais de 120 espécies e ocorre nas regiões tropicais e subtropicais de todo o mundo (VALENTI, 1987). São camarões de água doce da família Palaemonidae e da ordem Decapoda (RAFINESQUE, 1815; LATREILLER, 1802). No Brasil existem 18 espécies, até agora classificadas, distribuídas ao longo da bacia amazônica (MELO 2003). Entre estas, o Macrobrachium amazonicum (HELLER, 1862) conhecido popularmente como camarão-sossego ou camarão-canela, amplamente empregados na carcinicultura. Os crustáceos dispõem de estruturas sensitivas localizadas no cefalotórax, que permitem receber estímulos do meio para localizar e capturar o alimento (BARNES, 1998). Os olhos compostos estão presentes em todas as classes de crustáceo. Assim, a hipótese levantada nessa pesquisa foi que no Macrobrachium amazonicum, estes olhos são do tipo de superposição reflexiva, onde o aparelho dióptrico e o rabdômero se estendem em camadas e está separado por uma zona clara não pigmentada. Neste trabalho temos como objetivos: Avaliar os aspectos morfológicos do olho do Macrobrachium amazonicum em microscopia eletrônica de varredura; Caracterizar a morfologia das células fotorreceptoras; Descrever as estruturas morfológicas do olho do M. amazonicum; Caracterizar as relações morfométricas entre o olho e as demais estruturas do M. amazonicum. Os animais foram adquiridos no distrito de Mosqueiro nos períodos de chuvas, março de 2009 e março de 2010, com pescadores no município de Santa Bárbara, área metropolitana de Belém, e transportados para o laboratório em caixas de isopor, sendo mantidos em quarentena em um recipiente contendo uma solução de permanganato de potássio a 1,3 mg/L (CARNEIRO et al., 005). Os animais foram fixados em Davidson e Karnovisky, em seguida os olhos de cada animal foram cuidadosamente seccionados e colocados em frascos plásticos. Nas relações biométricas foram realizadas a análise de variância com α = 0,05, foi realizada com Bio Estat 5.0 para os comprimentos do olho látero-lateral e ântero-posterior dos quatro morfotipos, e SigmaPlot 11.0 e regressão linear simples, para as variáveis olho total e cefalotórax. Observou-se que o tamanho médio do cefalotórax, do corpo, do olho é respectivamente: 21,03 mm; 70,62 mm e 4,52 mm, sendo que, o peso médio do camarão foi de 7,97 g. Os valores máximos registrados dessas estruturas foram de 31,95 mm para o cefalotórax; 100,10 mm para o tamanho do corpo; 6,80 mm para o tamanho do olho e de 20,54 g para o peso do camarão. Após análise histológica foram identificadas as seguintes estruturas (Figs. 13 e 14 A-B): córnea, cone cristalino, pigmento distal, haste do cone, zona clara, cutícula, retina, rabdoma, fibras do nervo óptico e lamina. Com relação à microscopia eletrônica de varredura, foram selecionadas para observação as principais estruturas e especialmente o arranjo em seção transversal quadrada dos omatídeos (Figs. 16 A-B). As análises morfométrica e morfológica (por histologia e microscopia eletrônica de varredura) apontaram características próprias de Macrobrachium amazonicum adultos oriundos da região metropolitana de Belém. Estes achados incluem uma óptica de superposição reflexiva com olhos adaptados a percepção de estímulos luminosos.

Molekulare Charakterisierung der Centrin-Isoformen in der Retina von Säugetieren

Centrine sind Mitglieder einer hoch konservierten Überfamilie von Ca2+-bindenden Proteinen mit EF-Hand Motiven. Bislang sind vier Centrin-Isoformen bei Säugern beschrieben worden, die in diversen Zellen in der Regel mit Centriolen von Centrosomen oder Centrosomen-verwandten Strukturen assoziiert sind. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation wurden die vier Centrin-Isoformen bezüglich der Expression in verschiedenen Geweben untersucht. Dabei lag der Hauptfokus auf Untersuchungen der Centrine in den Photorezeptorzellen der Retina. Analysen auf subzellulärer Ebene brachten Klarheit über die differenzielle Lokalisation der verschiedenen Isoformen in der Retina. Mit Hilfe von verschiedenen Methoden konnten Wechselwirkungspartner in der Retina identifiziert werden, die eine Rolle in der visuellen Signaltransduktionskaskade spielen. Dabei könnten Centrine einem Regelmechanismus angehören, der wichtige Translokationsprozesse dieser Proteine regelt. In den Photorezeptorzellen der Säugetierretina werden die vier Isoformen exprimiert, die in den Strukturen des Cilienapparates differenziell lokalisiert sind. Dabei beschränkt sich ihre Lokalisation entweder auf den Basalkörper (Centrin 4), auf das Verbindungscilium (Centrin 1) oder sie sind in beiden Strukturen zu finden (Centrin 2 und 3). In den nicht- Photorezeptorzellen der Retina sind die Isoformen Centrin 2 und 3 zudem an den Centriolen der Centrosomen lokalisiert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde zum ersten Mal gezeigt, dass alle Centrin-Isoformen in ein und derselben Zelle, der Photorezeptorzelle, koexprimiert werden und dabei subzellulär kolokalisiert sind. Im Weiteren konnte die ubiquitäre Expression von Centrin 2 und 3 in allen untersuchten Geweben an Centrosomen bestätigt werden. Centrin 1 und 4 hingegen werden nur in Geweben mit Cilien-tragenden Zellen exprimiert. Die Funktion der Centrine wird nicht nur durch Bindung von Ca2+, sondern auch durch Phosphorylierungen reguliert. Alle Sequenzen der Centrine weisen diverse mögliche Phosphorylierungsstellen für unterschiedliche Proteinkinasen auf. Die Ergebnisse aller durchgeführten in vitro und ex vivo Phosphorylierungs „Assays“ zeigen eine licht-abhängige Phosphorylierung der Centrin-Isoformen in der Retina. Dabei war in der dunkel-adaptierten Retina die Phosphorylierung vor allem von Centrin 1 und 2 erhöht. Weiterführende Experimente mit Kinase-Inhibitoren wiesen darauf hin, dass vor allem die Proteinkinase CKII eine bedeutende Rolle bei der Centrin-Phosphorylierung in der Retina einnimmt. Centrine sind die ersten Cytoskelettkomponenten, deren Phosphorylierungsgrad lichtabhängig moduliert wird. Diese Ergebnisse weisen auf einen Signalweg, der zwischen der visuellen Signaltransduktionskaskade und der Regulation der Centrin-Aktivität vermittelt, hin. Bei der Suche nach Centrin-Bindungspartnern gelang mit Hilfe von Centrin 1 Blot „Overlay Assays“ der Durchbruch. Der neuartige Ansatz zeigte, dass ausschließlich Ca2+-aktiviertes Centrin 1 mit Proteinen aus der Retina interagierte. Nach der Identifikation eines 37 kDa-Proteins als die β-Untereinheit des visuellen G-Proteins Transducin wurden die Untersuchungen auf diesen Interaktionspartner fokussiert. Die Ergebnisse der hier durchgeführten biochemischen und biophysikalischen Protein-Protein Interaktionsexperimente zeigen insgesamt folgendes: ⇒ Alle vier Centrine interagieren mit Transducin, wobei Centrin 3 die geringste Affinität zu Transducin hat. ⇒ Die Assemblierung der Centrin•G-Protein-Komplexe ist strikt Ca2+-abhängig. ⇒ Die Centrine binden sowohl an das isolierte Gtβγ-Heterodimer als auch an den heterotrimeren Gt-holo-Proteinkomplex, nicht aber an Gtα. Die quantitativen immunoelektronenmikroskopischen Analysen zeigen im Weiteren, dass sich die Komplexe aus Transducin und Centrin 1 bis 3 wahrscheinlich in einer Subdomäne des Verbindungsciliums der Photorezeptorzellen ausbilden. Dabei dürfte die Ausbildung der Komplexe an der Regulation der lichtinduzierten Translokation von Transducin zwischen Innen- und Außensegment der Photorezeptorzellen beteiligt sein. Dieser Translokationsmechanismus wird als ein wichtiger Bestandteil der Langzeitadaption der Signaltransduktionskaskade der Säugerretina diskutiert. Der neuartige Regelmechanismus der molekularen Translokationen, in dem Centrine involviert sind, ist außergewöhnlich und dürfte über die speziellen Photorezeptorzellen hinaus von weit reichender Bedeutung sein.