Small-molecule inhibitor of USP7/HAUSP ubiquitin protease stabilizes and activates p53 in cells.

Deregulation of the ubiquitin/proteasome system has been implicated in the pathogenesis of many human diseases, including cancer. Ubiquitin-specific proteases (USP) are cysteine proteases involved in the deubiquitination of protein substrates. Functional connections between USP7 and essential viral proteins and oncogenic pathways, such as the p53/Mdm2 and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B networks, strongly suggest that the targeting of USP7 with small-molecule inhibitors may be useful for the treatment of cancers and viral diseases. Using high-throughput screening, we have discovered HBX 41,108, a small-molecule compound that inhibits USP7 deubiquitinating activity with an IC(50) in the submicromolar range. Kinetics data indicate an uncompetitive reversible inhibition mechanism. HBX 41,108 was shown to affect USP7-mediated p53 deubiquitination in vitro and in cells. As RNA interference-mediated USP7 silencing in cancer cells, HBX 41,108 treatment stabilized p53, activated the transcription of a p53 target gene without inducing genotoxic stress, and inhibited cancer cell growth. Finally, HBX 41,108 induced p53-dependent apoptosis as shown in p53 wild-type and null isogenic cancer cell lines. We thus report the identification of the first lead-like inhibitor against USP7, providing a structural basis for the development of new anticancer drugs.

Allele-specific silencing of mutant huntingtin in rodent brain and human stem cells.

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder resulting from polyglutamine expansion in the huntingtin (HTT) protein and for which there is no cure. Although suppression of both wild type and mutant HTT expression by RNA interference is a promising therapeutic strategy, a selective silencing of mutant HTT represents the safest approach preserving WT HTT expression and functions. We developed small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) targeting single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) present in the HTT gene to selectively target the disease HTT isoform. Most of these shRNAs silenced, efficiently and selectively, mutant HTT in vitro. Lentiviral-mediated infection with the shRNAs led to selective degradation of mutant HTT mRNA and prevented the apparition of neuropathology in HD rat's striatum expressing mutant HTT containing the various SNPs. In transgenic BACHD mice, the mutant HTT allele was also silenced by this approach, further demonstrating the potential for allele-specific silencing. Finally, the allele-specific silencing of mutant HTT in human embryonic stem cells was accompanied by functional recovery of the vesicular transport of BDNF along microtubules. These findings provide evidence of the therapeutic potential of allele-specific RNA interference for HD.

Toll-like receptor 3 expressed by melanoma cells as a target for therapy?

PURPOSE: The immunomodulatory properties of Toll-like receptors (TLR) agonists have inspired their use as experimental adjuvants for vaccination of cancer patients. However, it is now well recognized that TLR expression is not restricted to immune cells but can also be found in many cell types, including those giving rise to tumors. It is therefore mandatory to explore the potential effects of TLR triggering directly on tumor cells. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: In the present work, we have investigated TLR3 protein expression in melanoma cell lines derived from patients, and analyzed the effects of TLR3 agonists on tumor cell survival. Moreover, we used RNA interference to stably knock down TLR3 expression and study the involvement of this receptor in dsRNA-induced effects on melanoma cells viability. RESULTS: Human melanoma cells can express functional TLR3 protein. Interestingly, the engagement of the receptor by TLR3 agonists can directly inhibit cell proliferation and induce tumor cell death when combined to treatment with either type I IFN or protein synthesis inhibitors. These effects were shown by RNA interference to be largely dependent on TLR3. Moreover, TLR3-mediated cell death involves the activation of caspases and engages both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways. CONCLUSION: TLR3 protein can be expressed in human melanoma cells, where it can deliver proapoptotic and antiproliferative signaling. Altogether, these results suggest that TLR3 agonists represent very promising adjuvants for cancer vaccines not only based on their well-described immunostimulatory properties, but also due to their newly identified cytostatic and cytotoxic effects directly on tumor cells.

Exendin-4 protects beta-cells from interleukin-1 beta-induced apoptosis by interfering with the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase pathway.

OBJECTIVE: The pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) generates pancreatic beta-cells apoptosis mainly through activation of the c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. This study was designed to investigate whether the long-acting agonist of the hormone glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor exendin-4 (ex-4), which mediates protective effects against cytokine-induced beta-cell apoptosis, could interfere with the JNK pathway. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Isolated human, rat, and mouse islets and the rat insulin-secreting INS-1E cells were incubated with ex-4 in the presence or absence of IL-1 beta. JNK activity was assessed by solid-phase JNK kinase assay and quantification of c-Jun expression. Cell apoptosis was determined by scoring cells displaying pycnotic nuclei. RESULTS: Ex-4 inhibited induction of the JNK pathway elicited by IL-1 beta. This effect was mimicked with the use of cAMP-raising agents isobutylmethylxanthine and forskolin and required activation of the protein kinase A. Inhibition of the JNK pathway by ex-4 or IBMX and forskolin was concomitant with a rise in the levels of islet-brain 1 (IB1), a potent blocker of the stress-induced JNK pathway. In fact, ex-4 as well as IBMX and forskolin induced expression of IB1 at the promoter level through cAMP response element binding transcription factor 1. Suppression of IB1 levels with the use of RNA interference strategy impaired the protective effects of ex-4 against apoptosis induced by IL-1 beta. CONCLUSIONS: The data establish the requirement of IB1 in the protective action of ex-4 against apoptosis elicited by IL-1 beta and highlight the GLP-1 mimetics as new potent inhibitors of the JNK signaling induced by cytokines.

Characterization of the molecular mechanisms of insulin exocytosis and of their adaptation to physiopathological conditions

Résumé large public Le glucose est une source d'énergie essentielle pour notre organisme, indispensable pour le bon fonctionnement des cellules de notre corps. Les cellules β du pancréas sont chargées de réguler l'utilisation du glucose et de maintenir la glycémie (taux de glucose dans le sang) à un niveau constant. Lorsque la glycémie augmente, ces dernières sécrètent l'insuline, une hormone favorisant l'absorption, l'utilisation et le stockage du glucose. Une sécrétion insuffisante d'insuline provoque une élévation anormale du taux de glucose dans le sang (hyperglycémie) et peut mener au développement du diabète sucré. L'insuline est sécrétée dans le sang par un mécanisme particulier appelé exocytose. Une meilleure compréhension de ce mécanisme est nécessaire dans l'espoir de trouver des nouvelles thérapies pour traiter les 170 millions de personnes atteintes de diabète sucré à travers le monde. L'implication de diverses protéines, comme les SNAREs ou Rabs a déjà été démontrée. Cependant leurs mécanismes d'action restent, à ce jour, peu compris. De plus, l'adaptation de la machinerie d'exocytose à des conditions physiopathologiques, comme l'hyperglycémie, est encore à élucider. Le but de mon travail de thèse a été de clarifier le rôle de deux protéines, Noc2 et Tomosyn, dans l'exocytose ; puis de déterminer les effets d'une exposition prolongée à un taux élevé de glucose sur l'ensemble des protéines de la machinerie d'exocytose. Noc2 est un partenaire potentiel de deux Rabs connues pour leur implication dans les dernières étapes de l'exocytose, Rab3 et Rab27. Grâce à l'étude de différents mutants de Noc2, j'ai montré que l'interaction avec Rab27 permet à la protéine de s'associer avec les organelles de la cellule β contenant l'insuline. De plus, en diminuant sélectivement l'expression de Noc2, j'ai déterminé l'importance de cette protéine pour le bon fonctionnement du processus d'exocytose et le relâchement de l'insuline. Quant à Tomosyn, une protéine interagissant avec les protéines SNAREs, j'ai démontré son importance dans la sécrétion d'insuline en diminuant de manière sélective son expression dans les cellules β. Ensuite, grâce à une combinaison d'approches moléculaires et de microscopie, j'ai mis en évidence le rôle de Tomosyn dans les dernières étapes de l'exocytose. Enfin, puisque la sécrétion d'insuline est diminuée lors d'une hyperglycémie prolongée, j'ai analysé l'adaptation de la machinerie d'exocytose à ces conditions. Ceci m'a permis de découvrir que l'expression de quatre protéines essentielles pour le processus d'exocytose, Noc2, Rab3, Rab27 et Granuphilin, est fortement diminuée lors d'une hyperglycémie chronique. L'ensemble de ces données met en évidence l'importance de Noc2 et Tomosyn dans la sécrétion d'insuline. L'inhibition, par un taux élevé de glucose, de l'expression de Noc2 et d'autres protéines indispensables pour l'exocytose suggère que ce phénomène pourrait contribuer au développement du diabète sucré. Résumé L'exocytose d'insuline, en réponse au glucose circulant dans le sang, est la fonction principale de la cellule β. Celle-ci permet de stabiliser le taux de glucose sanguin (glycémie). Le diabète de type 2 est caractérisé par une glycémie élevée due, principalement, à un défaut de sécrétion d'insuline en réponse au glucose. La compréhension des mécanismes qui contrôlent l'exocytose d'insuline est essentielle pour clarifier les causes du diabète sucré. Plusieurs composants impliqués dans ce processus ont été identifiés. Ceux-ci incluent les SNAREs Syntaxin-1, VAMP2 et SNAP25 et les GTPases Rab3 et Rab27 qui jouent un rôle dans les dernières étapes de l'exocytose. Pendant mon travail de thèse, j'ai étudié le rôle de Noc2, un des partenaires de Rab3 et Rab27, dans l'exocytose d'insuline. Nous avons déterminé que Noc2 s'associe aux granules de sécrétion d'insuline grâce à son interaction avec Rab27. La diminution de l'expression de Noc2 dans la lignée cellulaire β INS-1E, par ARN interférence, influence négativement la sécrétion d'insuline stimulée par différents sécrétagogues et prouve que cette protéine Noc2 est essentielle pour l'exocytose d'insuline. L'interaction avec Munc13, une protéine impliquée dans l'arrimage des vésicules, suggère que Noc2 participe au recrutement des granules d'insuline à la membrane plasmique. Ensuite, j'ai analysé l'adaptation de la machinerie d'exocytose à des concentrations supraphysiologiques de glucose. Le niveau d'expression de Rab3 et Rab27 et de leurs effecteurs Granuphilin/S1p4 et Noc2 est fortement diminué par une exposition prolongée des cellules β à haut glucose. L'effet observé est en relation avec l'induction de l'expression de ICER, un facteur de transcription surexprimé dans des conditions d'hyperglycémie et également dans des modèles génétiques de diabète de type 2. La surexpression de ICER dans des cellules INS-1E diminue l'expression de Rab3, Rab27, Granuphilin/Slp4 et Noc2 et par conséquent l'exocytose d'insuline. Ainsi, l'induction de ICER, après une exposition prolongée à haut glucose, régule négativement l'expression de protéines essentielles pour l'exocytose et altère la sécrétion d'insuline. Ce mécanisme pourrait contribuer au dysfonctionnement de l'exocytose d'insuline dans le diabète de type 2. Dans la dernière partie de ma thèse, j'ai investigué le rôle de la protéine Tomosyn-1 dans la formation du complexe SNARE. Cette protéine a une forte affinité pour Syntaxin-1 et contient un domaine SNARE. Tomosyn-1 est concentrée dans les régions cellulaires enrichies en granules de sécrétion. La diminution sélective de l'expression de Tomosyn-1 induit une réduction de l'exocytose stimulée par différents sécrétagogues. Cet effet est dû à un défaut de fusion des granules avec la membrane plasmique. Ceci nous indique que Tomosyn-1 intervient dans une phase importante de la préparation des vésicules à la fusion, qui est nécessaire à l'exocytose. Abstract: Insulin exocytosis from pancreatic β-cells plays a central role in blood glucose homeostasis. Diabetes mellitus is a complex metabolic disorder characterized by secretory dysfunctions in pancreatic β-cells and release of amounts of insulin that are inappropriate to maintain blood glucose concentration within normal physiological ranges. To define the causes of β-cell failure a basic understanding of the molecular mechanisms that control insulin exocytosis is essential. Some of the molecular components involved in this process have been identified, including the SNARE proteins VAMP2, Syntaxin-1 and SNAP25 and the two GTPases, Rab3 and Rab27, that regulate the final steps of insulin secretion. I first investigated the role of Noc2, a potential Rab3 and Rab27 partner, in insulin secretion. I found that Noc2 associates with Rab27 and is recruited by this GTPase on insulin- containing granules. Silencing of the Noc2 gene by RNA interference led to a strong impairment in the capacity of the β-cell line INS-1E to respond to secretagogues, indicating that appropriate levels of the protein are essential for insulin exocytosis. I also showed that Noc2 interacts with Munc13, a protein that controls vesicle priming, suggesting a possible involvement of Noc2 in the recruitment of secretory granules at the plasma membrane. In the second part of my thesis, I investigated the adaptation of the molecular machinery of exocytosis to physiopathological conditions. I found that the expression of Rab3, Rab27 and of their effectors Granuphilin/Slp4 and Noc2 is dramatically decreased by chronic exposure of β-ce1ls to supraphysiological glucose levels. The observed glucotoxic effect is a consequence of the induction of ICER, a transcriptional repressor that is increased by prolonged hyperglycemia and in genetic models of type 2 diabetes. Overexpression of ICER reduced Granuphilin, Noc2, Rab3 and Rab27 levels and inhibited exocytosis. These results suggest that the presence of inappropriate levels of ICER diminishes the expression of a group of proteins essential for exocytosis and contributes to defective insulin release in type 2 diabetes. In the last part of my thesis, I focused my attention on the role of Tomosyn-1, a Syntaxin-1 binding protein possessing a SNARE-like motif, in the control of SNARE complex assembly. I found that Tomosyn-1 is concentrated in cellular compartments enriched in insulin-containing secretory granules. Silencing of Tomosyn-1 did not affect the number of secretory granules docked at the plasma membrane but decreased their release probability, resulting in a reduction in stimulus-induced insulin exocytosis. These findings suggest that Tomosyn-1 is involved in a post-docking event that prepares secretory granules for fusion and is necessary to sustain exocytosis in response to insulin secretagogues.

The Wnt receptor FZD1 mediates chemoresistance in neuroblastoma through activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway.

The development of chemoresistance represents a major obstacle in the successful treatment of cancers such as neuroblastoma (NB), a particularly aggressive childhood solid tumour. The mechanisms underlying the chemoresistant phenotype in NB were addressed by gene expression profiling of two doxorubicin (DoxR)-resistant vs sensitive parental cell lines. Not surprisingly, the MDR1 gene was included in the identified upregulated genes, although the highest overexpressed transcript in both cell lines was the frizzled-1 Wnt receptor (FZD1) gene, an essential component of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway. FZD1 upregulation in resistant variants was shown to mediate sustained activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway as revealed by nuclear beta-catenin translocation and target genes transactivation. Interestingly, specific micro-adapted short hairpin RNA (shRNAmir)-mediated FZD1 silencing induced parallel strong decrease in the expression of MDR1, another beta-catenin target gene, revealing a complex, Wnt/beta-catenin-mediated implication of FZD1 in chemoresistance. The significant restoration of drug sensitivity in FZD1-silenced cells confirmed the FZD1-associated chemoresistance. RNA samples from 21 patient tumours (diagnosis and postchemotherapy), showed a highly significant FZD1 and/or MDR1 overexpression after treatment, underlining a role for FZD1-mediated Wnt/beta-catenin pathway in clinical chemoresistance. Our data represent the first implication of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway in NB chemoresistance and identify potential new targets to treat aggressive and resistant NB.

siRNA-Mediated Knock-Down of P-Glycoprotein Expression Reveals Distinct Cellular Disposition of Anticancer Tyrosine Kinases Inhibitors.

Studies on the cellular disposition of targeted anticancer tyrosine kinases inhibitors (TKIs) have mostly focused on imatinib while the functional importance of P-glycoprotein (Pgp) the gene product of MDR1 remains controversial for more recent TKIs. By using RNA interference-mediated knockdown of MDR1, we have investigated and compared the specific functional consequence of Pgp on the cellular disposition of the major clinically in use TKIs imatinib, dasatinib, nilotinib, sunitinib and sorafenib. siRNA-mediated knockdown in K562/Dox cell lines provides a unique opportunity to dissect the specific contribution of Pgp to TKIs intracellular disposition. In these conditions, abrogating specifically Pgp-mediated efflux in vitro revealed the remarkable and statistically significant cellular accumulation of imatinib (difference in cellular levels between Pgp-expressing and silenced cells, at high and low incubation concentration, respectively: 6.1 and 6.6), dasatinib (4.9 and 5.6), sunitinib (3.7 and 7.3) and sorafenib (1.2 and 1.4), confirming that these TKIs are all substrates of Pgp. By contrast, no statistically significant difference in cellular disposition of nilotinib was observed as a result of MDR1 expression silencing (differences: 1.1 and 1.5) indicating that differential expression and/or function of Pgp is unlikely to affect nilotinib cellular disposition. This study enables for the first time a direct estimation of the specific contribution of one transporter among the various efflux and influx carriers involved in the cellular trafficking of these major TKIs in vitro. Knowledge on the distinct functional consequence of Pgp expression for these various TKIs cellular distribution is necessary to better appreciate the efficacy, toxicity, and potential drug-drug interactions of TKIs with other classes of therapeutic agents, at the systemic, tissular and cellular levels.

Induction of cardiac Angptl4 by dietary fatty acids is mediated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor beta/delta and protects against fatty acid-induced oxidative stress.

RATIONALE: Although dietary fatty acids are a major fuel for the heart, little is known about the direct effects of dietary fatty acids on gene regulation in the intact heart. OBJECTIVE: To study the effect of dietary fatty acids on cardiac gene expression and explore the functional consequences. METHODS AND RESULTS: Oral administration of synthetic triglycerides composed of one single fatty acid altered cardiac expression of numerous genes, many of which are involved in the oxidative stress response. The gene most significantly and consistently upregulated by dietary fatty acids encoded Angiopoietin-like protein (Angptl)4, a circulating inhibitor of lipoprotein lipase expressed by cardiomyocytes. Induction of Angptl4 by the fatty acid linolenic acid was specifically abolished in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)beta/delta(-/-) and not PPARalpha(-/-) mice and was blunted on siRNA-mediated PPARbeta/delta knockdown in cultured cardiomyocytes. Consistent with these data, linolenic acid stimulated binding of PPARbeta/delta but not PPARalpha to the Angptl4 gene. Upregulation of Angptl4 resulted in decreased cardiac uptake of plasma triglyceride-derived fatty acids and decreased fatty acid-induced oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. In contrast, Angptl4 deletion led to enhanced oxidative stress in the heart, both after an acute oral fat load and after prolonged high fat feeding. CONCLUSIONS: Stimulation of cardiac Angptl4 gene expression by dietary fatty acids and via PPARbeta/delta is part of a feedback mechanism aimed at protecting the heart against lipid overload and consequently fatty acid-induced oxidative stress.

Application of RNAi to silence tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase: unexpected effects on the monocyte-macrophage lineage

Tartraatti-resistentin happaman fosfataasin hiljentäminen RNAi menetelmällä: odottamaton vaikutus monosyytti-makrofagi linjan soluissa RNA interferenssi (RNAi) eli RNA:n hiljentyminen löydettiin ensimmäisenä kasveissa, ja 2000-luvulla RNAi menetelmä on otettu käyttöön myös nisäkässoluissa. RNAi on mekanismi, jossa lyhyet kaksi juosteiset RNA molekyylit eli siRNA:t sitoutuvat proteiinikompleksiin ja sitoutuvat komplementaarisesti proteiinia koodaavaan lähetti RNA:han katalysoiden lähetti RNA:n hajoamisen. Tällöin RNA:n koodaamaa proteiinia ei solussa tuoteta. Tässä työssä on RNA interferenssi menetelmän avuksi kehitetty uusi siRNA molekyylien suunnittelualgoritmi siRNA_profile, joka etsii lähetti RNA:sta geenin hiljentämiseen sopivia kohdealueita. Optimaalisesti suunnitellulla siRNA molekyylillä voi olla mahdollista saavuttaa pitkäaikainen geenin hiljeneminen ja spesifinen kohdeproteiinin määrän aleneminen solussa. Erilaiset kemialliset modifikaatiot, mm. 2´-Fluoro-modifikaatio, siRNA molekyylin riboosirenkaassa lisäsivät siRNA molekyylin stabiilisuutta veren plasmassa sekä siRNA molekyylin tehokkuutta. Nämä ovat tärkeitä siRNA molekyylien ominaisuuksia kun RNAi menetelmää sovelletaan lääketieteellisiin tarkoituksiin. Tartraatti-resistentti hapan fosfataasi (TRACP) on entsyymi, joka esiintyy luunsyöjäsoluissa eli osteoklasteissa, antigeenejä esittelevissä dendiriittisissä soluissa sekä eri kudosten makrofageissa, jotka ovat syöjäsoluja. TRACP entsyymin biologista tehtävää ei ole saatu selville, mutta oletetaan että TRACP entsyymin kyvyllä tuottaa reaktiivisia happiradikaaleja on tehtävä sekä luuta hajoittavissa osteoklasteissa sekä antigeenia esittelevissä dendriittisissä soluissa. Makrofageilla, jotka yliekpressoivat TRACP entsyymiä, on myös solunsisäinen reaktiivisten happiradikaalien tuotanto sekä bakteerin tappokyky lisääntynyt. TRACP-geenin hiljentämiseen tarkoitetut spesifiset DNA ja siRNA molekyylit aiheuttivat monosyytti-makrofagilinjan soluviljelymallissa TRACP entsyymin tuoton lisääntymistä odotusten vastaisesti. DNA ja RNA molekyylien vaikutusta TRACP entsyymin tuoton lisääntymiseen tutkittiin myös Tolllike reseptori 9 (TLR9) poistogeenisestä hiirestä eristetyissä monosyyttimakrofaagisoluissa. TRACP entsyymin tuoton lisääntyminen todettiin sekvenssistä ja TLR9:stä riippumattomaksi vasteeksi solun ulkopuolisia DNA ja RNA molekyylejä vastaan. Havainto TRACP entsyymin tuoton lisääntymisestä viittaa siihen, että TRACP entsyymillä on tehtävä solun immuunipuolustusjärjestelmässä.

egr-4, a target of EGFR signaling, is required for the formation of the brian primordial and head regeneration in planarians

During the regeneration of freshwater planarians, polarity and patterning programs play essential roles in determining whether a head or a tail regenerates at anterior or posterior-facing wounds. This decision is made very soon after amputation. The pivotal role of the Wnt/β-catenin and Hh signaling pathways in re-establishing anterior-posterior (AP) polarity has been well documented. However, the mechanisms that control the growth and differentiation of the blastema in accordance with its AP identity are less well understood. Previous studies have described a role of Smed-egfr-3, a planarian epidermal growth factor receptor, in blastema growth and differentiation. Here, we identify Smed-egr-4, a zinc-finger transcription factor belonging to the early growth response gene family, as a putative downstream target of Smed-egfr-3. Smed-egr-4 is mainly expressed in the central nervous system and its silencing inhibits anterior regeneration without affecting the regeneration of posterior regions. Single and combinatorial RNA interference to target different elements of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, together with expression analysis of brain- and anterior-specific markers, revealed that Smed-egr-4: (1) is expressed in two phases - an early Smed-egfr-3-independent phase and a late Smed-egfr-3-dependent phase; (2) is necessary for the differentiation of the brain primordia in the early stages of regeneration; and (3) that it appears to antagonize the activity of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway to allow head regeneration. These results suggest that a conserved EGFR/egr pathway plays an important role in cell differentiation during planarian regeneration and indicate an association between early brain differentiation and the proper progression of head regeneration.

The planarian flatworm: an in vivo model for stem cell biology and nervous system regeneration

Planarian flatworms are an exception among bilaterians in that they possess a large pool of adult stem cells that enables them to promptly regenerate any part of their body, including the brain. Although known for two centuries for their remarkable regenerative capabilities, planarians have only recently emerged as an attractive model for studying regeneration and stem cell biology. This revival is due in part to the availability of a sequenced genome and the development of new technologies, such as RNA interference and next-generation sequencing, which facilitate studies of planarian regeneration at the molecular level. Here, we highlight why planarians are an exciting tool in the study of regeneration and its underlying stem cell biology in vivo, and discuss the potential promises and current limitations of this model organism for stem cell research and regenerative medicine.

Contribution of Intronic miR-338-3p and Its Hosting Gene AATK to Compensatory β-Cell Mass Expansion.

The elucidation of the mechanisms directing β-cell mass regeneration and maintenance is of interest, because the deficit of β-cell mass contributes to diabetes onset and progression. We previously found that the level of the microRNA (miRNA) miR-338-3p is decreased in pancreatic islets from rodent models displaying insulin resistance and compensatory β-cell mass expansion, including pregnant rats, diet-induced obese mice, and db/db mice. Transfection of rat islet cells with oligonucleotides that specifically block miR-338-3p activity increased the fraction of proliferating β-cells in vitro and promoted survival under proapoptotic conditions without affecting the capacity of β-cells to release insulin in response to glucose. Here, we evaluated the role of miR-338-3p in vivo by injecting mice with an adeno-associated viral vector permitting specific sequestration of this miRNA in β-cells. We found that the adeno-associated viral construct increased the fraction of proliferating β-cells confirming the data obtained in vitro. miR-338-3p is generated from an intron of the gene coding for apoptosis-associated tyrosine kinase (AATK). Similarly to miR-338-3p, we found that AATK is down-regulated in rat and human islets and INS832/13 β-cells in the presence of the cAMP-raising agents exendin-4, estradiol, and a G-protein-coupled Receptor 30 agonist. Moreover, AATK expression is reduced in islets of insulin resistant animal models and selective silencing of AATK in INS832/13 cells by RNA interference promoted β-cell proliferation. The results point to a coordinated reduction of miR-338-3p and AATK under insulin resistance conditions and provide evidence for a cooperative action of the miRNA and its hosting gene in compensatory β-cell mass expansion.

Connexin43 Inhibition Prevents Human Vein Grafts Intimal Hyperplasia.

Venous bypass grafts often fail following arterial implantation due to excessive smooth muscle cells (VSMC) proliferation and consequent intimal hyperplasia (IH). Intercellular communication mediated by Connexins (Cx) regulates differentiation, growth and proliferation in various cell types. Microarray analysis of vein grafts in a model of bilateral rabbit jugular vein graft revealed Cx43 as an early upregulated gene. Additional experiments conducted using an ex-vivo human saphenous veins perfusion system (EVPS) confirmed that Cx43 was rapidly increased in human veins subjected ex-vivo to arterial hemodynamics. Cx43 knock-down by RNA interference, or adenoviral-mediated overexpression, respectively inhibited or stimulated the proliferation of primary human VSMC in vitro. Furthermore, Cx blockade with carbenoxolone or the specific Cx43 inhibitory peptide 43gap26 prevented the burst in myointimal proliferation and IH formation in human saphenous veins. Our data demonstrated that Cx43 controls proliferation and the formation of IH after arterial engraftment.

Planarians as a model to assess in vivo the role of matrix metalloproteinase genes during homeostasis and regeneration

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are major executors of extracellular matrix remodeling and, consequently, play key roles in the response of cells to their microenvironment. The experimentally accessible stem cell population and the robust regenerative capabilities of planarians offer an ideal model to study how modulation of the proteolytic system in the extracellular environment affects cell behavior in vivo. Genome-wide identification of Schmidtea mediterranea MMPs reveals that planarians possess four mmp-like genes. Two of them (mmp1 and mmp2) are strongly expressed in a subset of secretory cells and encode putative matrilysins. The other genes (mt-mmpA and mt-mmpB) are widely expressed in postmitotic cells and appear structurally related to membrane-type MMPs. These genes are conserved in the planarian Dugesia japonica. Here we explore the role of the planarian mmp genes by RNA interference (RNAi) during tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Our analyses identify essential functions for two of them. Following inhibition of mmp1 planarians display dramatic disruption of tissues architecture and significant decrease in cell death. These results suggest that mmp1 controls tissue turnover, modulating survival of postmitotic cells. Unexpectedly, the ability to regenerate is unaffected by mmp1(RNAi). Silencing of mt-mmpA alters tissue integrity and delays blastema growth, without affecting proliferation of stem cells. Our data support the possibility that the activity of this protease modulates cell migration and regulates anoikis, with a consequent pivotal role in tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Our data provide evidence of the involvement of specific MMPs in tissue homeostasis and regeneration and demonstrate that the behavior of planarian stem cells is critically dependent on the microenvironment surrounding these cells. Studying MMPs function in the planarian model provides evidence on how individual proteases work in vivo in adult tissues. These results have high potential to generate significant information for development of regenerative and anti cancer therapies.

Creatine deficiency syndomes : a new model of partial GAMT deficiency affecting brain cell development

Les syndromes de déficiences cérébrales en créatine (CCDS) sont dus à des mutations dans les gènes GATM et G AMT (codant pour les enzymes AGAT et G AMT de la voie de synthèse de créatine) ainsi que SLC6A8 (transporteur de créatine), et génèrent une absence ou une très forte baisse de créatine (Cr) dans le cerveau, mesurée par spectroscopic de résonance magnétique. Les patients CCDS développent des handicaps neurologiques sévères. Les patients AGAT et GAMT peuvent être traités avec des doses importantes de Cr, mais gardent dans la plupart des cas des séquelles neurologiques irréversibles. Aucun traitement efficace n'existe à ce jour pour la déficience en SLC6A8. Bien que de nombreux modèles aient été développés pour comprendre la Cr cérébrale en conditions physiologiques, les pathomécanismes des CCDS ne sont pas encore compris. Des souris transgéniques pour les gènes Gatm, Gamt et Slc6a8 ont été générées, mais elles ne miment que partiellement la pathologie humaine. Parmi les CCDS, la déficience en GAMT est la plus sévère, en raison de l'accumulation cérébrale de l'intermédiaire guanidinoacétate (GAA). Alors que la toxicité cérébrale du GAA a été étudiée par exposition directe au GAA d'animaux adultes sains, les mécanismes de la toxicité du GAA en condition de déficience en GAMT dans le cerveau en développement sont encore inconnus. Le but de ce projet était donc de développer un modèle de déficience en GAMT dans des cultures 3D primaires de cellules nerveuses de rat en agrégats par knock-down du gène GAMT, en utilisant un virus adéno-associé (AAV) induisant le mécanisme d'interférence à l'ARN (RNAi). Le virus scAAV2, à la multiplicité d'infection de 1000, s'est révélé le plus efficace pour transduire tous les types de cellules nerveuses des cultures (neurones, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes), et générer un knock-down maximal de la protéine GAMT de 85% (jour in vitro 18). Cette déficience partielle en GAMT s'est révélée insuffisante pour générer une déficience en Cr, mais a causé l'accumulation attendue de GAA, à des doses comparables aux niveaux observés dans le LCR des patients GAMT. Le GAA a induit une croissance axonale anarchique accompagnée d'une baisse de l'apoptose naturelle, suivis par une induction tardive de mort cellulaire non-apoptotique. Le co-traitement par la Cr a prévenu tous les effets toxiques du GAA. Ce travail montre que l'accumulation de GAA en absence de déficience en Cr est suffisante pour affecter le développement du tissu nerveux, et suggère que des formes de déficiences en GAMT supplémentaires, ne présentant pas de déficiences en Cr, pourraient être découvertes par mesure du GAA, en particulier à travers les programmes récemment proposés de dépistage néonatal de la déficience en GAMT. -- Cerebral creatine deficiency syndromes (CCDS) are caused by mutations in the genes GATM and GAMT (respectively coding for the two enzymes of the creatine synthetic pathway, AGAT and GAMT) as well as SLC6A8 (creatine transporter), and lead to the absence or very strong decrease of creatine (Cr) in the brain when measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Affected patients show severe neurological impairments. While AGAT and GAMT deficient patients can be treated with high dosages of Cr, most remain with irreversible brain sequelae. No treatment has been successful so far for SLC6A8 deficiency. While many models have helped understanding the cerebral Cr pathways in physiological conditions, the pathomechanisms underlying CCDS are yet to be elucidated. Transgenic mice carrying mutations in the Gatm, Gamt and Slc6a8 genes have been developed, but only partially mimic the human pathology. Among CCDS, GAMT deficiency is the most severe, due to the CNS accumulation of the guanidinoacetate (GAA) intermediate. While brain toxicity of GAA has been explored through direct GAA exposure of adult healthy animals, the mechanisms underlying GAA toxicity in GAMT deficiency conditions on the developing CNS are yet unknown. The aim of this project was thus to develop and characterize a GAMT deficiency model in developing brain cells by gene knockdown, by adeno-associated virus (AAV)-driven RNA interference (RNAi) in rat 3D organotypic primary brain cell cultures in aggregates. scAAV2 with a multiplicity of infection of 1000 was shown as the most efficient serotype, was able to transduce all brain cell types (neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes) and to induce a maximal GAMT protein knockdown of 85% (day in vitro 18). Metabolite analysis showed that partial GAMT knockdown was insufficient to induce Cr deficiency but generated the awaited GAA accumulation at concentrations comparable to the levels observed in cerebrospinal fluid of GAMT-deficient patients. Accumulated GAA induced axonal hypersprouting paralleled with inhibition of natural apoptosis, followed by a later induction in non-apoptotic cell death. Cr supplementation led to the prevention of all GAA-induced toxic effects. This work shows that GAA accumulation without Cr deficiency is sufficient to affect CNS development, and suggests that additional partial GAMT deficiencies, which may not show the classical brain Cr deficiency, may be discovered through GAA measurement including by recently proposed neonatal screening programs for GAMT deficiency.