The European Union and the Member States: two different perceptions of border

Abstract In this article we analyze two different perceptions of border inside Europe. On the one hand, we have the perception idealized by the European Union as an international organization, which believes that states benefit more from cooperation and dilution of borders in a common space than from keeping its borders as a symbol of its sovereignty. On the other hand, we have the European member states, taken individually, with particular interests and goals that, given the threat of illegal immigration, which is currently felt in the large-scale Europe, adopt a realistic perception of the border, and look at each territory as a space that needs protection from external threats. Following this argument, we reason that the current construction of walls in several European countries reflects the rebirth of a realistic perception of the border, and this is one more challenge for Europe regarding its unity and solidarity. Is this the end of the Schengen Agreement? What is going to happen to the European project if each state unilaterally adopts a strategy to deal with illegal immigration and refugees that are coming to Europe? Can immigration lead to a retrocession of the EU idealist significance of border?

Também são meus irmãos

Revista Lusófona de Ciências Sociais

Draft for a Mental Health strategy Lebanon

RESUMO: O Líbano é um pequeno país na costa leste do Mar Mediterrâneo, com uma população de aproximadamente 4.350.000 pessoas, incluindo 1,5 milhões de refugiados, 400 mil dos quais são palestinos atendidos pela UNRWA (Agência das Nações Unidas de Socorro aos Refugiados da Palestina) (UNHCR, 2013; OMS, 2010a). Desde 2012, um excedente de 1.000.000 refugiados sírios cruzaram a fronteira com o Líbano, representando um aumento populacional de aproximadamente 25%. Além disso, entre 1975 e 1990, a violenta guerra civil pela qual o Líbano passou, destruiu grande parte da infra-estrutura do país, incluindo os serviços de saúde. O sector da saúde, mais especificamente os serviços de saúde mental, é majoritariamente privado. Serviços especializados em Saúde Mental estão disponíveis em três hospitais psiquiátricos privados, e em 4 unidades psiquiátricas de hospitais gerais, que estão localizados centralmente em torno da capital, Beirute. O Líbano é um dos dois únicos países da região que não tem uma Política de Saúde Mental e um dos seis países que não têm uma Legislação em Saúde Mental. Nos últimos anos, a Saúde Mental está sendo colocada no topo da agenda nacional, apesar das contínuas questões políticas e de segurança. Baseando-se nas informações acima, um projecto de estratégia em Saúde Mental, conduzido pelo Ministério da Saúde e apoiado pela OMS, foi escrito para servir como um guia para trabalhar em diferentes aspectos relacionados tanto em saúde mental quanto em organização dos serviços, revisão de legislação, financiamento e proteção dos direitos humanos básicos dos usuários do serviço. Esta tese descreve o processo pelo qual o projecto de estratégia nacional de Saúde Mental foi desenvolvido, seus principais componentes, os próximos passos a serem tomados para a sua implementação, os desafios e as oportunidades para implementá-lo e propõe alguns passos iniciais a serem tomados em primeiro lugar.----------ABSTRACT: Lebanon is a small country on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea with a population of approximately 4,350,000 including 1,500,000 refugees, 400,000 of whom are Palestinians served by UNRWA (the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees) (UNHCR, 2013; WHO, 2010a). Since 2012 an excess of 1,000,000 Syrian refugees have crossed the border into Lebanon accounting for approximately 25% increase in the population. In addition, from 1975 to 1990 Lebanon underwent a violent civil war that had also destroyed much of the country infrastructure including health services. The health sector, more so the mental health services, is mostly private. Specialized Mental Health services are available at three private mental hospitals, and 4 psychiatric units within general hospitals, which are located centrally around the capital, Beirut. Lebanon is one of only two countries of the region that does not have a Mental Health policy and one out of the six countries that does not have a Mental Health legislation. In recent years, Mental Health is getting placed higher on the national agenda despite the ever continuing political and security issues. Based on the above, A Mental Health strategy draft, lead by the Ministry of Health and supported by WHO, was written to serve as a guide to work on different aspects related to Mental Health from service organization, to the revision of legislation, financing and the protection of the basic human rights of service users. This thesis describes the process through which the national Mental Health draft strategy was developed, its main components, the next steps to be taken for its implementation, the challenges and the opportunities to implementing it and proposes a few initial steps to be taken first.

Analyzing Geospatial patterns of syrian refugee flows in southeastern Turkey by use of remote sensing and complementary data

Crisis-affected communities and global organizations for international aid are becoming increasingly digital as consequence geotechnology popularity. Humanitarian sector changed in profound ways by adopting new technical approach to obtain information from area with difficult geographical or political access. Since 2011, turkey is hosting a growing number of Syrian refugees along southeastern region. Turkish policy of hosting them in camps and the difficulty created by governors to international aid group expeditions to get information, made such international organizations to investigate and adopt other approach in order to obtain information needed. They intensified its remote sensing approach. However, the majority of studies used very high-resolution satellite imagery (VHRSI). The study area is extensive and the temporal resolution of VHRSI is low, besides it is infeasible only using these sensors as unique approach for the whole area. The focus of this research, aims to investigate the potentialities of mid-resolution imagery (here only Landsat) to obtain information from region in crisis (here, southeastern Turkey) through a new web-based platform called Google Earth Engine (GEE). Hereby it is also intended to verify GEE currently reliability once the Application Programming Interface (API) is still in beta version. The finds here shows that the basic functions are trustworthy. Results pointed out that Landsat can recognize change in the spectral resolution clearly only for the first settlement. The ongoing modifications vary for each case. Overall, Landsat demonstrated high limitations, but need more investigations and may be used, with restriction, as a support of VHRSI.

Pessoas deslocadas internamente: soberania nacional e proteção internacional perante uma "nova" tendência migratória

A investigação acerca das pessoas deslocadas internamente (isto é, no interior dos seus países, mas fora dos seus espaços de vida habituais) se mostra um desafio, em virtude dos volumes de pessoas atualmente envolvidas e das condições com que se confrontam, da incapacidade (ou desinteresse) dos Estados nacionais em garantir proteção aos seus cidadãos, e do princípio de neutralidade internacional, que dificilmente permite intervenções externas no sentido da salvaguarda dos direitos humanos. Discutimos as categorizações adotadas, as normas jurídicas existentes e o quadro institucional vigente no que se refere à proteção das Pessoas Deslocadas Internamente, da mesma forma que destacamos grupos minoritários de deslocados internos que sofrem maiores constrangimentos, como as mulheres. Fizemos um paralelo com os refugiados, assim como com os retidos nas zonas de conflito, os deslocados por razões ambientais e econômicas. Analisamos o conceito de cidadania, Estado soberano e a noção do não intervencionismo, assim como problematizamos os desafios colocados pela globalização, pela amplitude dos fenômenos migratórios e desrespeitos aos direitos humanos. Argumentamos a possibilidade de uma esfera pública transnacional como possível mediadora entre Estado e cidadãos, fazendo-se necessário uma análise do conceito de esfera pública, bem como da atuação dos movimentos sociais transnacionais. Realizamos um estudo comparativo entre Angola (desalojamento de pessoas e destruição de casas) e Brasil (perda de terra dos agricultores familiares ou populações nativas), atentos ao fato de que muitas vezes, nestes contextos, as vítimas destes processos não são consideradas como Pessoas Deslocadas Internamente. Acreditamos que as aproximações e diferenciações entre os dois casos podem trazer respostas comuns e sua análise pode servir a um maior entendimento sobre os fenômenos migratórios, fragilidade institucional, atuação da Sociedade Civil Organizada (SCO), além da revisão de conceitos. Pode ainda servir para uma revisão crítica da legislação e da possibilidade de institucionalização de órgãos transnacionais de proteção.

A wave of change: Labor market and social security impacts of the EU refugee inflow

The recent massive inflow of refugees to the European Union (EU) raises a number of unanswered questions on the economic impact of this phenomenon. To examine these questions, we constructed an overlapping-generations model that describes the evolution of the skill premium and of the welfare benefit level in relevant European countries, in the aftermath of an inflow of asylum-seekers. In our simulation, relative wages of skilled workers increase between 8% and 11% in the period of the inflow; their subsequent time path is dependent on the initial skill premium. The entry of migrants creates a fiscal surplus of about 8%, which can finance higher welfare benefits in the subsequent periods. These effects are weaker in a scenario where refugees do not fully integrate into the labor market.

Cidadania, imigração e nacionalidade na União Europeia

Projeto de mestrado em Políticas Comunitárias e Cooperação Territorial

“Fantasia Lusitana”, de João Canijo: O Portugal ficcional vs. o país real. O Estado Novo e a ‘portugalidade’. A construção da identidade

ISBN: 978-989-96858-3-3

A proteção subsidiária na nova lei do asilo: o sentido e alcance da figura

Dissertação de mestrado em Direitos Humanos

Speech by Mr. Micheál Martin TD – Meeting The Challenges Of Cultural Diversity In The Irish Healthcare Sector

It gives me great pleasure to accept the invitation to address this conference on “Meeting the Challenges of Cultural Diversity in the Irish Healthcare Sector” which is being organised by the Irish Health Services Management Institute in partnership with the National Consultative Committee on Racism and Interculturalism. The conference provides an important opportunity to develop our knowledge and understanding of the issues surrounding cultural diversity in the health sector from the twin perspectives of patients and staff. Cultural diversity has over recent years become an increasingly visible aspect of Irish society bringing with it both opportunities and challenges. It holds out great possibilities for the enrichment of all who live in Ireland but it also challenges us to adapt creatively to the changes required to realise this potential and to ensure that the experience is a positive one for all concerned but particularly for those in the minority ethnic groups. In the last number of years in particular, the focus has tended to be on people coming to this country either as refugees, asylum seekers or economic migrants. Government figures estimate that as many as 340,000 immigrants are expected in the next six years. However ethnic and cultural diversity are not new phenomena in Ireland. Travellers have a long history as an indigenous minority group in Ireland with a strong culture and identity of their own. The changing experience and dynamics of their relationship with the wider society and its institutions over time can, I think, provide some valuable lessons for us as we seek to address the more numerous and complex issues of cultural diversity which have arisen for us in the last decade. Turning more specifically to the health sector which is the focus of this conference, culture and identity have particular relevance to health service policy and provision in that The first requirement is that we in the health service acknowledge cultural diversity and the differences in behaviours and in the less obvious areas of values and beliefs that this often implies. Only by acknowledging these differences in a respectful way and informing ourselves of them can we address them. Our equality legislation – The Employment Equality Act, 1998 and the Equal Status Act, 2000 – prohibits discrimination on nine grounds including race and membership of the Traveller community. The Equal Status Act prohibits discrimination on an individual basis in relation to the nine grounds while for groups it provides for the promotion of equality of opportunity. The Act applies to the provision of services including health services. I will speak first about cultural diversity in relation to the patient. In this respect it is worth mentioning that the recognition of cultural diversity and appropriate responses to it were issues which were strongly emphasised in the public consultation process which we held earlier this year in the context of developing National Anti-Poverty targets for the health sector and also our new national health strategy. Awareness and sensitivity training for staff is a key requirement for adapting to a culturally diverse patient population. The focus of this training should be the development of the knowledge and skills to provide services sensitive to cultural diversity. Such training can often be most effectively delivered in partnership with members of the minority groups themselves. I am aware that the Traveller community, for example, is involved in in-service training for health care workers. I am also aware that the National Consultative Committee on Racism and Interculturalism has been involved in training with the Eastern Regional Health Authority. We need to have more such initiatives. A step beyond the sensitivity training for existing staff is the training of members of the minority communities themselves as workers in our health services. Again the Traveller community has set an example in this area with its Primary Health Care Project for Travellers. The Primary Health Care for Travellers Project was established in 1994 as a joint partnership initiative with the Eastern Health Board and Pavee Point, with ongoing technical assistance being provided from the Department of Community Health and General Practice, Trinity College, Dublin. This project was the first of its kind in the country and has facilitated The project included a training course which concentrated on skills development, capacity building and the empowerment of Travellers. This confidence and skill allowed the Community Health Workers to go out and conduct a baseline survey to identify and articulate Travellers’ health needs. This was the first time that Travellers were involved in this process; in the past their needs were assumed. The results of the survey were fed back to the community and they prioritised their needs and suggested changes to the health services which would facilitate their access and utilisation. Ongoing monitoring and data collection demonstrates a big improvement in levels of satisfaction and uptake and ulitisation of health services by Travellers in the pilot area. This Primary Health Care for Travellers initiative is being replicated in three other areas around the country and funding has been approved for a further 9 new projects. This pilot project was the recipient of a WHO 50th anniversary commemorative award in 1998. The project is developing as a model of good practice which could inspire further initiatives of this type for other minority groups. Access to information has been identified in numerous consultative processes as a key factor in enabling people to take a proactive approach to managing their own health and that of their families and in facilitating their access to health services. Honouring our commitment to equity in these areas requires that information is provided in culturally appropriate formats. The National Health Promotion Strategy 2000-2005, for example, recognises that there exists within our society many groups with different requirements which need to be identified and accommodated when planning and implementing health promotion interventions. These groups include Travellers, refugees and asylum seekers, people with intellectual, physical or sensory disability and the gay and lesbian community. The Strategy acknowledges the challenge involved in being sensitive to the potential differences in patterns of poor health among these different groups. The Strategic aim is to promote the physical, mental and social well-being of individuals from these groups. The objective of the Strategy on these issues are: While our long term aim may be to mainstream responses so that our health services is truly multicultural, we must recognise the need at this point in time for very specific focused responses particularly for groups with poor health status such as Travellers and also for refugees and asylum seekers. In the case of refugees and asylum seekers examples of targeted services are screening for communicable diseases – offered on a voluntary basis – and psychological support services for those who have suffered trauma before coming here. The two approaches of targeting and mainstreaming are not mutually exclusive. A combination of both is required at this point in time but the balance between them must be kept under constant review in the light of changing needs. A major requirement if we are to meet the challenge of cultural diversity is an appropriate data and research base. I think it is important that we build up our information and research data base in partnership with the minority groups themselves. We must establish what the health needs of diverse groups are; we must monitor uptake of services and how well we are responding to needs and we must monitor outcomes and health status. We must also examine the impact of the policies in other sectors on the health of minority groups. The National Health Information Strategy, currently being developed, and the recently published National Strategy for Health Research – Making Knowledge Work for Health provide important frameworks within which we can improve our data and research base. A culturally diverse health sector workforce – challenges and opportunities The Irish health service can benefit greatly from successful international recruitment. There has been a strong non-national representation amongst the medical profession for more than 30 years. More recently there have been significant increases in other categories of health service workers from overseas. The Department recognises the enormous value that overseas recruitment brings over a wide range of services and supports the development of effective and appropriate recruitment strategies in partnership with health service employers. These changes have made cultural diversity an important issue for all health service organisations. Diversity in the workplace is primarily about creating a culture that seeks, respects, values and harnesses difference. This includes all the differences that when added together make each person unique. So instead of the focus being on particular groups, diversity is about all of us. Change is not about helping “them” to join “us” but about critically looking at “us” and rooting out all aspects of our culture that inappropriately exclude people and prevent us from being inclusive in the way we relate to employees, potential employees and clients of the health service. International recruitment benefits consumers, Irish employees and the overseas personnel alike. Regardless of whether they are employed by the health service, members of minority groups will be clients of our service and consequently we need to be flexible in order to accommodate different cultural needs. For staff, we recognise that coming from other cultures can be a difficult transition. Consequently health service employers have made strong efforts to assist them during this period. Many organisations provide induction courses, religious facilities (such as prayer rooms) and help in finding suitable accommodation. The Health Service Employers Agency (HSEA) is developing an equal opportunities/diversity strategy and action plans as well as training programmes to support their implementation, to ensure that all health service employment policies and practices promote the equality/diversity agenda to continue the development of a culturally diverse health service. The management of this new environment is extremely important for the health service as it offers an opportunity to go beyond set legal requirements and to strive for an acceptance and nurturing of cultural differences. Workforce cultural diversity affords us the opportunity to learn from the working practices and perspectives of others by allowing personnel to present their ideas and experience through teamwork, partnership structures and other appropriate fora, leading to further improvement in the services we provide. It is important to ensure that both personnel units and line managers communicate directly with their staff and demonstrate by their actions that they intend to create an inclusive work place which doesn´t demand that minority staff fit. Contented, valued employees who feel that there is a place for them in the organisation will deliver a high quality health service. Your conference here today has two laudable aims – to heighten awareness and assist health care staff to work effectively with their colleagues from different cultural backgrounds and to gain a greater understanding of the diverse needs of patients from minority ethnic backgrounds. There is a synergy in these aims and in the tasks to which they give rise in the management of our health service. The creative adaptations required for one have the potential to feed into the other. I would like to commend both organisations which are hosting this conference for their initiative in making this event happen, particularly at this time – Racism in the Workplace Week. I look forward very much to hearing the outcome of your deliberations. Thank you.

Ethnic disparities in health and health care: a focused review of the evidence and selected examples of good practice. Full report

This report arises from a project commissioned by the Department of Health's Equality and Human Rights Group to produce an evidence-based review with a national perspective that addresses (i) ethnic differentials in health and healthcare and (ii) evidence of effective NHS and other action, including seective examples of good practice to illustrate each area. Rather than aiming for comprehensive coverage, the Department suggested a document that focuses on selective topics and population health priorities drawn from the NHS plan, existing and developing National Service Frameworks, and other policy documents and which, collectively, are encompassed in the NHS's 10-point Race Equality Action Plan. The authors were not asked to review the evidence on other key areas (such ashypertension, stroke, disability, etc.), ethnic disparities in the wider determinants of health, and on some specific groups such as Gypsy Travellers and refugees and asylum seekers. Some of these topics are covered in other reviews.

Ethnic disparities in health and health care: a focused review of the evidence and selected examples of good practice. Executive summary

This report arises from a project commissioned by the Department of Health's Equality and Human Rights Group to produce an evidence-based review with a national perspective that addresses (i) ethnic differentials in health and healthcare and (ii) evidence of effective NHS and other action, including seective examples of good practice to illustrate each area. Rather than aiming for comprehensive coverage, the Department suggested a document that focuses on selective topics and population health priorities drawn from the NHS plan, existing and developing National Service Frameworks, and other policy documents and which, collectively, are encompassed in the NHS's 10-point Race Equality Action Plan. The authors were not asked to review the evidence on other key areas (such ashypertension, stroke, disability, etc.), ethnic disparities in the wider determinants of health, and on some specific groups such as Gypsy Travellers and refugees and asylum seekers. Some of these topics are covered in other reviews.

Eretria - Nea Psara : eine klassizistische Stadtanlage über der antiken Polis

Résumé: Le présent ouvrage propose une histoire de l'Erétrie moderne, de la redécouverte du site antique au projet urbanistique de 1834 pour une ville nouvelle destinée à accueillir les réfugiés de l'île de Psara - anéantie en 1824 par les Ottomans - et au développement urbain d'Erétrie/Nea Psara au XIXe et au XXe siècles. Le nom d'Erétrie englobe trois couches historiques distinctes: la cité antique, la ville néoclassique, dessinée par l'architecte allemand Eduard Schaubert (1804-1860), et le village moderne, issu de son projet. Chacune de ces strates - vestiges antiques, tissu urbain néoclassique et constructions plus récentes - est perceptible au sein de cet ensemble urbain et se trouve en relation constante avec les autres. L'exposé des recherches archéologiques - depuis la redécouverte du site antique par Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli d'Ancona (Cyriaque d'Ancône) en 1436 déjà, puis de manière systématique par des voyageurs-archéologues dès le XIXe siècle - comble une lacune dans l'historiographie de la cité antique. Cette approche met également en lumière la relation étroite entre archéologie et urbanisme au XIXe siècle. Si l'exploration de la Grèce avait été jusqu'à son indépendance en 1827 essentiellement le fait des archéologues, des historiens et des philologues, après cette date, des géologues, des ingénieurs et des topographes travaillant pour le développement économique du jeune Etat se mirent également à parcourir le pays, le regard tourné non plus seulement vers l'Antiquité, mais aussi vers l'avenir. L'histoire de la redécouverte d'Erétrie permet ainsi d'éclairer divers aspects liés à la gestation de l'Etat grec. Le projet conçu en 1834 par Ecluard Schaubert de ville néoclassique superposée aux ruines de la cité antique d'Erétrie s'inscrit dans un réseau de créations de villes nouvelles et de modernisations de villes existantes par le nouvel Etat grec, qui cherchait à fonder sa légitimité et son identité, après la domination ottomane, sur les valeurs idéales (ou idéalisées) de l'Antiquité classique. Dans le projet de développement urbain d'Erétrie, la relation étroite entre archéologie et urbanisme et, par conséquent, la référence à l'Antiquité sont évidentes: Eduard Schaubert commença par tracer sur son plan toutes les ruines antiques, dressant ainsi l'état des connaissances archéologiques du site. Sur cette base, l'architecte conçut la ville néoclassique en y incluant les principales ruines, qui devaient servir de repères visuels et qui concrétisaient ainsi le lien idéologique de la monarchie absolue avec l'Antiquité. A Erétrie, deux perspectives principales reliaient le port à l'acropole et l'Ecole navale au théâtre antique. L'intégration de ruines antiques dans un projet urbanistique avait été réalisée par Stamatios Kleanthes et Eduard Schaubert en 1831-1832 dans le plan de l'Athènes moderne, avant que celle-ci n'ait été promue capitale de la Grèce. Les deux architectes ont ainsi anticipé le caractère idéal d'Athènes dans le processus de gestation de l'Etat grec. L'importance de ce plan et de celui qu'ifs ont établi sur le même modèle pour le Pirée a été reconnue par les historiens de l'urbanisme. En revanche, le plan d'Erétrie, qui suit pourtant les mêmes principes, n'a été que partiellement étudié. Cette monographie montre que le projet d'Erétrie était le plus abouti des trois, qui tous se caractérisent par un système de routes rayonnant depuis le siège du gouvernement (résidences royales à Athènes et au Pirée, mairie à Erétrie). Cet éventail de rues ou u patte d'oie» embrasse à Athènes l'acropole et au Pirée fa baie du port, alors qu'a Erétrie il est double, axé en raison de la topographie sur l'acropole et sur Pa baie du port. Cette double patte d'oie crée ainsi le lien idéologique avec l'Antiquité et témoigne, par son ouverture sur le port, de l'essor économique souhaité par le gouvernement. Le plan d'Erétrie représente de manière exemplaire l'urbanisme programmatique de la Grèce sous Othon ler (1832-1862). L'ouvrage s'intéresse ensuite à la réalisation du projet de Schaubert, dont la mise en oeuvre n'a pas répondu aux attentes du Gouvernement. Le faible développement d'Erétrie s'explique principalement par le surdimensionnement du projet, des finances publiques modestes, la malaria endémique et une politique économique inadaptée aux traditions commerciales des Psariotes. Les lenteurs dans la réalisation du projet et même des régressions au cours du XIXe siècle et au début du XXe siècle, puis l'urbanisation accélérée d'Erétrie à partir des années 1960, ont eu pour conséquence que les historiens de l'urbanisme et les urbanistes ont sous-estimé, voire ignoré la valeur historique de ce concept Cependant, l'exécution du projet néoclassique s'est poursuivie de manière continue et des références au plan de Schaubert peuvent être observées dans l'aménagement récent de la localité aujourd'hui encore. Ainsi, des arbres ont été plantés dans les années 1960 le long de l'enceinte urbaine antique, à l'emplacement où Schaubert avait prévu la création d'une promenade arborée. Au centre d'Erétrie, là où l'agora principale aurait dû être aménagée, une grande place publique servant au marché hebdomadaire a été créée. Dans le quartier oriental, une petite église dédiée à la Pan hagia Paravouniotissa a été construite en 2001 sur la parcelle où Schaubert en avait prévue une. D'importants éléments des projets de Schaubert, qui ne sont actuellement plus guère perceptibles à Athènes et au Pirée, le sont toujours à Erétrie. Les espaces verts, par exemple, occupent une place importante dans le domaine privé: malgré la densification du tissu urbain, des parcelles caractéristiques contiennent encore des maisons isolées d'un ou de deux niveaux côté rue, avec un grand jardin à l'arrière, séparé des parcelles voisines par un mur en pierre ou en brique crue. Erétrie mérite donc une reconnaissance plus considérable dans l'histoire de l'urbanisme, puisqu'elle contribue à faire mieux comprendre les projets de ses deux villes soeurs. L'étude du projet urbanistique est complétée par une approche typologique des constructions néoclassiques d'Erétrie qui souligne encore la valeur historique de cet ensemble. Comme la plupart des édifices sont, menacés de démolition, à l'exception d'un petit nombre d'entre eux qui bénéficient d'un bon entretien, un inventaire photographique des constructions d'Erétrie datant du XIXe et du début du XXe siècle a été constitué entre 1994 et 2005, complété par des photographies anciennes. Il en ressort que les formes et les techniques de construction sont représentatives de l'architecture privée à l'époque de la création de l'Etat. Enfin, le plan directeur d'Erétrie, réalisé en 1975-1976 par un séminaire du Département d'architecture de l'Ecole polytechnique fédérale de Zurich avec l'appui de l'Ecole suisse d'archéologie en Grèce, est publié ici intégralement pour la première fois. Le présent ouvrage rend ses lettres de noblesse à un ensemble urbain néoclassique, certes modeste, mais issu d'un projet urbanistique ambitieux, témoin significatif du programme politique du nouvel Etat grec. SUMMARY Translated by William Eisler This book gives an account of the history of modern Eretria. It encompasses the rediscovery of the ancient city, the 1834 urban plan for the new town designed to accommodate the refugees from the island of Psara - destroyed by the Ottomans in 1824 - and also the urban development of Eretria/Nea Psara in the 19th and 20th centuries. The name Eretria carries a rich heritage: the ancient city, the neoclassical town designed by the Germen architect Eduard Schaubert (1804-1860), and the modern village. These three distinct historical layers ancient ruins, neoclassical plan and more recent constructions - can be seen within this urban area and are interlinked with each other. The account of the archeological investigations fills a gap in the historiography of the ancient city. This started with the early rediscovery of the ancient site by Ciriaco de'Pizzicolli d'Ancona in 1436, and was followed by systematic research by travellers/ archeologists from the 19th century onward. Furthermore, this shows the close relationship between archeology and urbanism in the 19th century. The exploration of Greece prier te its independence in 1827 was mainly red by archeologists, historians and philologists. Subsequently, geologists, engineers and topographers working for the young state's economic development travelled across the country, with their attention focused not only on Antiquity but are on the future. The history of Eretria's rediscovery gives new insights on various aspects related to the development of the Greek state. In 1834, Eduard Schaubert's project, planning a neoclassical town built upon the ancient Eretria, took place alongside the development of other new cities and the modernization of existing ones du ring the Ottoman domination. By doing so, the new Greek state wanted to build its legitimacy and identity, based upon the ideal (or idealized) values of Classical Antiquity. In the urban development of Eretria, the close connection between archeology and urbanism, and the reference to Antiquity, are obvious. Eduard Schaubert began by tracing on his plan ail of the ancient ruins, thus showing the knowledge of the archeological site at that time. On this basis, the architect planned the neoclassical town, incorporating the principal ruins which were to serve as visual references embodying the ideological link between Antiquity and King Otto's absolute monarchy. In Eretria, two principal visual axes linked the port to the acropolis and the Naval School to the ancient theatre. The integration of ancient ruins in an urban project had already been achieved by Stamatios Kleanthes and Eduard Schaubert in 1831-1832 in their plan for modern Athens, before it became the capital of Greece. The two architects had therefore anticipated the ideal character of Athens at the beginning of the Greek state. The importance of this plan and that of Piraeus (designed along the same model) has long been recognized by urban historians. By contrast, the plan of Eretria based open the same principles has been only partly studied. This book explains clearly that the Eretria project was the most elaborate. The three cities are characterized by a system of roads radiating from the seat of government (the royal residences in Athens and Piraeus, the town hall in Eretria). This fan-like arrangement of streets includes the Acropolis in Athens and the harbour in Piraeus, whereas in Eretria it is twofold, orientated towards the acropolis and the harbour on account of the topography. This double fan-like arrangement shows the ideological link with Antiquity and, with its opening onto the harbour, the government's desire for economic development. The plan of Eretria is a typical ex- ample of the programmatic urbanism of Greece under Otto I (1832-1862). The book discusses the completion of Schaubert's project, which was not fully carried out as expected by the government. The poor development of Eretria can be explained primarily by the excessive scale of the project, the modest public finances, the endemic malaria and an economic policy unsuitable to the commercial traditions of the Psariotes. Delays, even regressions in the implementation of the project in the course of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, followed by the growing urbanization of Eretria starting in the 1960's, led urban historians and town planners to underestimate or even to ignore the historical value of this concept. Nevertheless, the neoclassical project was carried out steadfastly, and references to the Schaubert plan can still be seen in the modern layout of the town. Trees were planted in the 1960's all along the circumference of the ancient city, where Schaubert had planned a tree-lined promenade. A big public square serving as a weekly market place was created in the centre of Eretria, where the principal agora had been originally planned. In 2001 a small church dedicated to the Panhagia Paravouniotissa was built on a plot of land in the eastern district, where this had been intended by Schaubert. Important elements of Schaubert's projects, which are barely perceptible in modern-day Athens and Piraeus, remain visible in Eretria. Green areas, for example, occupy a significant place within the private properties. In spite of the urban densification, characteristic plots still include isolated houses of one or two stories facing the street, with large gardens in the rear, separated from neighbours by stone or mudbrick walls. Eretria therefore deserves a more prominent position in the history of urbanism, as it contributes to a better understanding of ifs two sister cities. The study of the urban project is enriched by a typological approach to the neoclassical constructions of Eretria, underlining once again the historical value of this heritage. Since only a small number of the buildings have benefited from good maintenance and the greater part is threatened with demolition, a photographic inventory of the constructions of Eretria dating from the 19tIt and early 20th centuries was produced between 1994 and 2005, supplemented by old photographs. This documentation clearly shows that the forms and techniques of construction are characteristic of private architecture at the beginning of modern Greece. Finally, the master plan of Eretria drafted in 1975-1976 by a seminar of the Department of Architecture of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, with the support of the Swiss School of Archeology in Greece, is published here in full for the first time. This book gives credit to a neoclassical urban heritage which, although modest in scale, derives from an ambitious project that embodies the political programme of the new Greek state. ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ Μετάβραση Ελενή Δημητρακοπούλου Η παρούσα εργασία προτείνει μια. ιστορία της σύγχρονης πόλης της Ερέτριας, ξεκινώντας από την αποκάλύψη του αρχαιολογικού χώρου, περνώντας από την σύνταξη, το 1834, του ρυμοτομικού σχεδίου για μια νέα. πόλη που σκοπό είχε να υποδεχθεί τούς πρόσφυγες από τα Ψαρά. - που καταστράφηκαν ολοσχερώς το 1824 από τούς Οθωμανούς - και εξετάζοντας τέλος την πολεοδομική εξέλιξη της Ερέτριας/Νέων Ψαρών κατά τον 19° και τον 20° αι. Πίσω από το όνομα της Ερέτριας κρύβονται τρία διαφορετικά. ιστορικά στρώματα,: η αρχαία πόλη, η νεοκλασική πόλη πού σχεδιάστηκε από τον γερμανό αρχιτε κτονα "Εντοναρντ Σάουμπερτ (1804-1860) και η σύγχρονη πόλη που κτίστηκε πάνω στά. σχέδια του τελευταίού. Κάθε ένα από αυτά τα στρώματα - αρχαία κατάλοιπα. νεοκλασικός πολεοδομικός ιστός και νεώτερα κτίσματα - γίνεται αντιληπτό στο πλαίσιο αυτού του πολεοδομικού συνόλου και βρίσκεται σε άμεση σχέση με τα άλλα δύο. Ηπαρονσίαση των αρχαιολογικών ερευνών, που ξεκινούν το 1436 με την αποκάλυψη τον αρχαιολογικού χώρού από τον Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli d'Ancona (Κυριάκος ο Αγκωνίτης) και συνεχίζονται συστηματικά. από περιηγητές_αρχαιολόγούς κατά το 19° αι., καλύπτει ένα κενό στην ιστοριογραφία της έρεύνας της αρχαίας πύλης. Η προσέγγιση αυτή φωτίζει επίσης τη στενή σχέσημεταξύαρχαιολογίας και πολεοδομίας κατά τον 190 αι. Αν η εξερεύνηση της Ελλάδος, ως την ανεξαρτησία της το 1827, ήταν έργο κνρϊως αρχαιολόγων, ιστορικών και φιλολόγων, μετά από αυτήν την χρονολογία., γεωλόγοι, μηχανικοί και τοπογράφοι που εργάζονταν για την οικονομική ανάπτυξη τον νεοσύστατου Ελληνικού Κράτούς, άρχισαν επίσης να περιτρέχονν όλη την χώρα., με το βλέμμα. στραμμένο όχι μόνο προς την Αρχαιότητα, αλλά και προς το μέλλον. Η ιστορία της αποκάλυψης της Ερέτριας φωτίζει έτσι και διάφορες όψεις που συνδέονται με την γένεση του Ελληνικού Κράτους. Το 1834, υ 'Εντοναρντ Σάουμπερτ εκπόνησε το σχέδιο μιας νεοκλασικής πόλης που Θα επικαθόταν στα; ερείπια. της αρχαίας Ερέτριας?το έργο εντάσσεται στο δίκτυο δημιουργίας νέων πόλεων και εκσυγχρονισμού των υπαρχυυσών από το νεοσύστατο Ελληνικό Κράτος. το οποίο, μετά την Οθωμανική κυριαρχία, επεδίωκε να Θεμελιώσει την νομιμότητα και την ταυτότητά του πάνω στις ιδανικές ή εξιδανικευμένες αξίες της κλασικής αρχαιότητας. Στο σχέδιο της πολεοδομικής ανάπτυξης της Ερέτριας, η στενή σχέση μεταξύ αρχαιολογίας και πολεοδομίας και, κατ επέκταση. οι σαφείς αναφορές στην Αρχαιότητα. είναι εμφανείς: ο Εντοναρντ Σάουμπερτ άρχισε σχεδιάζοντας στο τοπογραφικό τον όλα τα αρχαία. ερείπια, καταγράφοντας έτσι τις τότε αρχαιολογικές γνώσεις για, το χώρο. Σε αυτή τη βάση, ο αρχιτέκτονας συνέλαβε την νεοκλασική πόλη εντάσσοντας σε αυτήν τα κυριότερα αρχαία μνημεία, τα οποία χρησίμευαν ως οπτικά σημεία αναφοράς, ενώ συγχρόνως υλοποιούσαν την ιδεολογική σχέση της απόλύτης μοναρχίας με την Αρχαιότητα. Στην Ερέτρια, δυο βασικοί άξονες συνέδεαν το λιμάνι με την Ακρόπολη και τη Ναυτική Σχολή με το Αρχαίο Θέατρο. Η ένταξη αρχαίων ερειπίων σε ένα πολεοδομικό σχέδιο είχε ήδη πραγματοποιηθεί από τούς Σταμάτιο Κλεάνθη και'Εντουαρντ Σάουμπερτ στα 1831-1832, στον σχεδιασμό της νέας Αθήνας, πριν αυτή ανακηρυχθεί σε πρωτεύουσα. της Ελλάδος. Οι δυο αρχιτέκτονες προεξόφλησαν έτσι τον συμβολικό χαρακτήρα της Αθήνας στην διαδικασία. γένεσης του Ελληνικού Κράτούς, Η σημασία αυτού τον σχεδίου καθώς και εκείνου που συνέταξαν, πάνω στο ίδιο πνεύμα, για τον Πειραιά έχει αναγνωριστεί από τους σύγχρονούς πολεοδόμους. Αντίθετα, το σχέδιο της Ερέτριας, παρ όλο που ακολούθεί τις ίδιες αρχές, μελετήθηκε πολύ λίγο. Η παρούσα μονογραφία δείχνει ότι το σχέδιο της Ερέτριας ήταν το πιο ολοκληρωμένο από τα τρία. Βασικό χαρακτηριστικό των σχεδίων αυτών είναι ένα σύστημα οδών που αναπτύσσονται ακτινωτά από το κέντρο εξουσίας (βασιλική κατοικία στην Αθήνα και τον Πειραιά, δημαρχείο στην Ερέτρια). Αυτή η ακτινωτή διάταξη των οδών συμπεριλαμβάνει στην Αθήνα την Ακρόπολη και στον Πειραιά το λιμάνι, ενώ στην Ερέτρια είναι αμφίροπη, προσανατολισμένη, λόγω της τοπογραφίας, προς την ακρόπολη αλλά και προς τον όρμο του λιμανιού. Αυτή η διπλή ακτινωτή διάταξη από τη μια δημιούργεί τον ιδεολογικό δεσμό ιιε την Αρχαιότητα, ενώ από την άλλη τονίζει, με το άνοιγμά της προς το λιμάνι, την οικονομική άνθηση της πόλης που επιθυμούσε η κεντρική εξουσία. Τα σχέδιο της Ερέτριας αποτελεί αντιπροσωπευτικό δείγμα της προγραμματικής πολεοδομίας της Ελλάδος κατά τα, χρόνια της Βασιλείας του "Οθωνος (1832-1862). Η υλοποίηση του σχεδίου του Σάουμπερτ δεν ανταποκρίθηκε στις προσδοκίες της κυβέρνησης. Η μικρή ανάπτύξη της Ερέτριας οφείλεται κυρίως στούς ανεδαφικούς, μεγαλεπί βολονς στόχους του σχεδίού, στα μέτρια δημόσια οικονομικά, στην ενδημική ελονοσία λόγω των υφισταμένων ελών καθώς και σε μια, οικονομική πολιτική που ήταν ξένη στις εμπορικές παραδόσεις των Ψαριανών. Οι αργοί ρυθμοί της πραγματοποίησης του σχεδίού και μάλιστα κάποιες περικοπές τον κατά τη διάρκεια τον 19°ν και στις αρχές του 2θ αι., και στη συνέχεια η ταχεία πολεοδομική εξέλιξη της Ερέτριας από τη δεκαετία του 1960, είχαν σαν συνέπεια να υποτιμηθεί ή κατ να αγνοηθεί η ιστορική αξία του πολεοδομικού σχεδίου από τους ιστορικούς της πολεοδομίας. Ωστόσο, η εκτέλεση τον νεοκλασικού σχεδίου ακολουθήθηκε με συνέπεια, ενώ αναφορές στο σχέδιο του Σάουμπερτ μπορούν να παρατηρηθούν, ακόμα. και σήμερα. στις νεώτερες διευθετήσεις τον χώρου. Ετσι, στη δεκαετία του 1960, κατά μήκος του αρχαίού τείχούς της πόλης φυτεύθηκαν δέντρα, στη Θέση όπού ο Σάουμπερτ είχε προβλέψει τη δημιουργία ενός δεντροφυτεμένου περιπάτου. Στο κέντρο της Ερέτριας, εκεί όπου Θα έπρεπε να διαμορφωθεί η κύρια αγορά της πόλης, δημιουργήθηκε μια μεγάλη δημόσια πλατεία όπου γίνεται η εβδομαδιαία λαϊκή αγορά. Στην ανατολική συνοικία, χτίστηκε, το 2001, μια μικρή εκκλησία αφιερωμένη στην Παναγία, την Παραβοννιώτισσα, στο οικόπεδο όπου ο Σάουμπερτ είχε προβλέψει μια εκκλησία. Σημαντικά στοιχεία των σχεδίων του Σάουμπερτ, που δεν γίνονται πια καθόλου αντιληπτά στην ΑΘήνα και στον Πειραιά, μπορούν να παρατηρηθούν στην Ερέτρια. Το πράσινο, για παράδειγμα, καταλαμβάνει σημαντική Θέση τον ιδιωτικού χώρου: παρά την πύκνωση τον πολεοδομικού ιστού, χαρακτηριστικά είναι τα οικόπεδα που περιέχούν ακόμα μεμονωμένα σπίτια, μονώροφα ή διώροφα, επί προσώπου οδού, με ένα μεγάλο κήπο στο πίσω μέρος, που χωρίζονται από τα, γειτονικά οικόπεδα με ένα μαντρότοιχο πέτρινο ή από ωμές πλίνθους. Η Ερέτρια οφείλει λοιπόν να λάβει τη Θέση που της αξίζει στην ιστορία της Νεοελληνικής πολεοδομίας, εφόσον συμβάλλει στην καλύτερη κατανόηση των σχεδίων των δυο αυτών αδελφών πόλεων. Η μελέτη τον πολεοδομικού σχεδίού συμπληρώνεται από μια τυπολογική προσέγγιση των νεοκλασικών κτηρίων της Ερέτριας, η οποία υπογραμμίζει ακόμα περισσότερο την ιστορική αξία του συνόλου αυτού. Καθώς τα περισσότερα κτήρια απειλούνται με κατεδάφιση, με εξαίρεση λίγα από αυτά που είχαν την τύχη να συντηρούνται σωστά, μεταξύ 1994 και 2005, καταρτίστηκε ένα φωτογραφικό αρχείο των κτιρίων της Ερέτριας που χρονολογούνται στο 19° και στις αρχές τον 200υ αι., συμπληρωμένο και από παλιές φωτογραφίες. Από αυτό προκύπτει ότι οι μορφές κατ οι τεχνικές δομήσεως είναι αντιπροσωπευτικές της ιδιωτικής αρχιτεκτονικής κατά την εποχή της σύστασης τον Ελληνικού Κράτους. Τέλος, το γενικό ρυθμιστικό σχέδιο της Ερέτριας, που εκπονήθηκε στα 1975-1976 από μελετητική ομάδατης σχολής Αρχιτεκτόνων του Ομοσπονδιακού Πολυτεχνείου της Ζυρίχης, με την υποστήριξη της Ελβετικής Αρχαιολογικής Σχολής στην Ελλάδα., δημοσιεύεται εδώ για πρώτη φορά στην πλήρη μορφή του. Η παρούσα εργασία, αφορά ένα νεοκλασικό πολεοδομικό σύνολο, ταπεινό ίσως, αλλά αποτέλεσμα ενός φιλόδοξου πολεοδομικού σχεδιασμού, ο οποίος αποτελεί σημαντικό μάρτυρα του πολιτικού προγράμματος τον νεοσύστατού Ελληνικού Κράτους.

The role of population movement in the epidemiology and control of schistosomiasis in Brazil: a preliminary typology of population movement

This paper examines recent developments in migration studies. It reviews literature related to the potential role of internal population movement in the occurrence of schistosomiasis in Brazil and modifies Prothero's typology of population movement for use in Brazil. This modified classification system may contribute to a better understanding of schistosome transmission as well as improved research and control programs. The results of this study indicate that population movement in Brazil primarily involves economically-motivated rural-urban and interregional movement. However, several movement patterns have become increasingly important in recent years as a result of changing socioeconomic and urbanisation dynamics. These patterns include urban-urban, intracity and urban-rural movement as well as the movement of environmental refugees and tourists. Little is known about the epidemiological significance of these patterns. This paper also highlights the role of social networks in the decision to migrate and to settle. Prothero's classic population movement typology categorises movement as either one-way migrations or circulations and examines them along spatial and temporal scales. However, the typology must be modified as epidemiological information about new patterns becomes available. This paper identifies areas that require further research and offers recommendations that can improve the measurement and spatial analysis of the relationship between population movement and schistosomiasis.