Análise da Qualidade de Energia em Instalações Eléctricas com MiniProdução

Com a alteração da legislação energética em Portugal, nomeadamente a implementação da legislação de Micro e Minigeração, a produção distribuída cresceu de forma exponencial na rede elétrica nacional, diminuindo por um lado as perdas no transporte e distribuição, e por outro aumentando a complexidade na gestão do trânsito de potência ao Distribuidor. No entanto a motivação desta dissertação prende-se com o facto de que as centrais de produção distribuída, em particular as de tecnologia fotovoltaica, pela sua dimensão, serem instaladas nos pontos de consumo, em paralelo com a instalação elétrica de utilização do cliente e como tal, têm sido verificadas diversas anomalias no funcionamento e exploração das mesmas, por influência da má qualidade de energia resultante das más condições de funcionamento e exploração em que se encontram as instalações de consumo. A presente dissertação pretende apresentar uma descrição das anomalias mais frequentes verificadas nas centrais fotovoltaicas de minigeração com origem na qualidade da energia que transita das instalações elétricas de consumo ligadas ao mesmo ponto de interligação com a rede elétrica nacional. Como base de fundamento, foram demonstradas através de três casos práticos reais, algumas das mais frequentes e prejudiciais anomalias descritas na presente dissertação. Foram escolhidos 3 casos reais com diferentes tipos de instalação de consumo sendo que um deles não apresenta qualquer anomalia de forma a comprovar o bom funcionamento em condições normais de ambas as instalações. Foram encontradas e demonstradas várias soluções paras os diferentes tipos de anomalias, no entanto esta dissertação vai permitir não só a resolução deste tipo de anomalias em centrais fotovoltaicas em exploração e já com prejuízos avultados mas também introduzir em futuras instalações a análise da qualidade da energia nas instalações de consumo em fase preliminar de estudo de implementação de centrais fotovoltaicas de minigeração e de autoconsumo, precavendo futuros problemas de rentabilidade técnico-económica. Este estudo, irá certamente servir de motor de impulsão para a preocupação com a Qualidade da Energia essencialmente dentro das instalações elétricas de consumo sensibilizando os seus gestores energéticos. Poderá ainda impulsionar a reformulação do Regulamento de Qualidade de Serviço para exigências ainda mais apertadas de forma a incorporar algumas das anomalias aqui descritas, sendo por isso um elemento de alerta para todos os “Players” do Sistema Elétrico Nacional tendo como limite a melhoria continua da Segurança e da Qualidade da energia na rede elétrica beneficiando da sensibilização de todos os intervenientes.

Localização Ótima de Aparelhos de Corte Normalmente Abertos e Normalmente Fechados em Redes de Distribuição

Tipicamente as redes elétricas de distribuição apresentam uma topologia parcialmente malhada e são exploradas radialmente. A topologia radial é obtida através da abertura das malhas nos locais que otimizam o ponto de operação da rede, através da instalação de aparelhos de corte que operam normalmente abertos. Para além de manterem a topologia radial, estes equipamentos possibilitam também a transferência de cargas entre saídas, aquando da ocorrência de defeitos. As saídas radiais são ainda dotadas de aparelhos de corte que operam normalmente fechados, estes têm como objetivo maximizar a fiabilidade e isolar defeitos, minimizando a área afetada pelos mesmos. Assim, na presente dissertação são desenvolvidos dois algoritmos determinísticos para a localização ótima de aparelhos de corte normalmente abertos e fechados, minimizando a potência ativa de perdas e o custo da energia não distribuída. O algoritmo de localização de aparelhos de corte normalmente abertos visa encontrar a topologia radial ótima que minimiza a potência ativa de perdas. O método é desenvolvido em ambiente Matlab – Tomlab, e é formulado como um problema de programação quadrática inteira mista. A topologia radial ótima é garantida através do cálculo de um trânsito de potências ótimo baseado no modelo DC. A função objetivo é dada pelas perdas por efeito de Joule. Por outro lado o problema é restringido pela primeira lei de Kirchhoff, limites de geração das subestações, limites térmicos dos condutores, trânsito de potência unidirecional e pela condição de radialidade. Os aparelhos de corte normalmente fechados são localizados ao longo das saídas radiais obtidas pelo anterior algoritmo, e permite minimizar o custo da energia não distribuída. No limite é possível localizar um aparelho de corte normalmente fechado em todas as linhas de uma rede de distribuição, sendo esta a solução que minimiza a energia não distribuída. No entanto, tendo em conta que a cada aparelho de corte está associado um investimento, é fundamental encontrar um equilíbrio entre a melhoria de fiabilidade e o investimento. Desta forma, o algoritmo desenvolvido avalia os benefícios obtidos com a instalação de aparelhos de corte normalmente fechados, e retorna o número e a localização dos mesmo que minimiza o custo da energia não distribuída. Os métodos apresentados são testados em duas redes de distribuição reais, exploradas com um nível de tensão de 15 kV e 30 kV, respetivamente. A primeira rede é localizada no distrito do Porto e é caraterizada por uma topologia mista e urbana. A segunda rede é localizada no distrito de Bragança e é caracterizada por uma topologia maioritariamente aérea e rural.

Converter-flux-based current control of voltage source PWM rectifiers - analysis and implementation

Pulsewidth-modulated (PWM) rectifier technology is increasingly used in industrial applications like variable-speed motor drives, since it offers several desired features such as sinusoidal input currents, controllable power factor, bidirectional power flow and high quality DC output voltage. To achieve these features,however, an effective control system with fast and accurate current and DC voltage responses is required. From various control strategies proposed to meet these control objectives, in most cases the commonly known principle of the synchronous-frame current vector control along with some space-vector PWM scheme have been applied. Recently, however, new control approaches analogous to the well-established direct torque control (DTC) method for electrical machines have also emerged to implement a high-performance PWM rectifier. In this thesis the concepts of classical synchronous-frame current control and DTC-based PWM rectifier control are combined and a new converter-flux-based current control (CFCC) scheme is introduced. To achieve sufficient dynamic performance and to ensure a stable operation, the proposed control system is thoroughly analysed and simple rules for the controller design are suggested. Special attention is paid to the estimationof the converter flux, which is the key element of converter-flux-based control. Discrete-time implementation is also discussed. Line-voltage-sensorless reactive reactive power control methods for the L- and LCL-type line filters are presented. For the L-filter an open-loop control law for the d-axis current referenceis proposed. In the case of the LCL-filter the combined open-loop control and feedback control is proposed. The influence of the erroneous filter parameter estimates on the accuracy of the developed control schemes is also discussed. A newzero vector selection rule for suppressing the zero-sequence current in parallel-connected PWM rectifiers is proposed. With this method a truly standalone and independent control of the converter units is allowed and traditional transformer isolation and synchronised-control-based solutions are avoided. The implementation requires only one additional current sensor. The proposed schemes are evaluated by the simulations and laboratory experiments. A satisfactory performance and good agreement between the theory and practice are demonstrated.

Modelling of North-West Russian market behavior considering technical restrictions of transmission grid

Nowadays the Finnish-Russian electric energy interaction is carried out through the back-to-back DC Vyborg substation and several power plants working synchronously with Finnish power system. Constant amount of energy flows in one direction — from Russia to Finland. But the process of electricity market development in Russian energy system makes the new possibilities of electrical cooperation available. The goal of master's thesis is to analyze the current state and possible evolution trends of North-West Russian system in relation with future possible change in power flow between Russia and Finland. The research is done by modelling the market of North-West Russia and examination of technical grid restrictions. The operational market models of North-West region of Russia for the years 2008 and 2015 were created during the research process. The description of prepared market models together with modelling results and their analysis are shown in the work. The description of power flow study process and results are also presented.

Electrical machine in a Hybrid Electrical Vehicle

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) have attracted very much attention during the latest years. Increasing environmental concern and an increase in fuel prices are key factors for the growing interest towards the HEV. In a hybrid electric vehicle the power train consists of both a mechanical power system and an electric power transmission system. The major subsystems in the mechanical power system are the internal combustion engine which powers the vehicle; electric power transmission including an energy storage, power electronic inverter, hybrid control system; the electric motor drive that runs either in the generating mode or in the motoring mode to process the power flow between the energy storage and the electrical machine. This research includes two advanced electric motors for a parallel hybrid: induction machine and permanent magnets synchronous machine. In the thesis an induction motor and a permanent magnet motor are compared as propulsion motors. Electric energy storages are also studied.

Response of Grilage-Like Structures by the Mobility Approach

This work presents an application of the Mobility Approach to the analysis of the power flow through grillage-like structures. Such structures are usually found in offshore platforms, supporting large and heavy machines. Different wave kinds (longitudinal, flexural and torsional) were initially considered in the power flow analysis between two beams joined in L. Beams excited by an in-plane point force showed strong coupling between longitudinal-flexural waves, while that for out-of-plane point force excitation, flexural-torsional waves coupling represents the most important mechanism of energy transmission. The response determination of grillages by the mobility approach requires the structure to be separated into simple beam-like structural components. Equations for rotations and displacements at the joints of all beams are written for as mobility functions, and moments and forces acting at the joints. A system of equations relating all such internal forces and moments is obtained. This approach was applied to simple grillages. Response results showed good agreement when compared to those provided by Finite Elements.

The influence of high cable penetration in distribution networks on earth fault currents and the operation of relay protection.

Recent Storms in Nordic countries were a reason of long power outages in huge territories. After these disasters distribution networks' operators faced with a problem how to provide adequate quality of supply in such situation. The decision of utilization cable lines rather than overhead lines were made, which brings new features to distribution networks. The main idea of this work is a complex analysis of medium voltage distribution networks with long cable lines. High value of cable’s specific capacitance and length of lines determine such problems as: high values of earth fault currents, excessive amount of reactive power flow from distribution to transmission network, possibility of a high voltage level at the receiving end of cable feeders. However the core tasks was to estimate functional ability of the earth fault protection and the possibility to utilize simplified formulas for operating setting calculations in this network. In order to provide justify solution or evaluation of mentioned above problems corresponding calculations were made and in order to analyze behavior of relay protection principles PSCAD model of the examined network have been created. Evaluation of the voltage rise in the end of a cable line have educed absence of a dangerous increase in a voltage level, while excessive value of reactive power can be a reason of final penalty according to the Finish regulations. It was proved and calculated that for this networks compensation of earth fault currents should be implemented. In PSCAD models of the electrical grid with isolated neutral, central compensation and hybrid compensation were created. For the network with hybrid compensation methodology which allows to select number and rated power of distributed arc suppression coils have been offered. Based on the obtained results from experiments it was determined that in order to guarantee selective and reliable operation of the relay protection should be utilized hybrid compensation with connection of high-ohmic resistor. Directional and admittance based relay protection were tested under these conditions and advantageous of the novel protection were revealed. However, for electrical grids with extensive cabling necessity of a complex approach to the relay protection were explained and illustrated. Thus, in order to organize reliable earth fault protection is recommended to utilize both intermittent and conventional relay protection with operational settings calculated by the use of simplified formulas.

Study on period search methods of variable stars: Application to ASAS and CRTS databases

Study on variable stars is an important topic of modern astrophysics. After the invention of powerful telescopes and high resolving powered CCD’s, the variable star data is accumulating in the order of peta-bytes. The huge amount of data need lot of automated methods as well as human experts. This thesis is devoted to the data analysis on variable star’s astronomical time series data and hence belong to the inter-disciplinary topic, Astrostatistics. For an observer on earth, stars that have a change in apparent brightness over time are called variable stars. The variation in brightness may be regular (periodic), quasi periodic (semi-periodic) or irregular manner (aperiodic) and are caused by various reasons. In some cases, the variation is due to some internal thermo-nuclear processes, which are generally known as intrinsic vari- ables and in some other cases, it is due to some external processes, like eclipse or rotation, which are known as extrinsic variables. Intrinsic variables can be further grouped into pulsating variables, eruptive variables and flare stars. Extrinsic variables are grouped into eclipsing binary stars and chromospheri- cal stars. Pulsating variables can again classified into Cepheid, RR Lyrae, RV Tauri, Delta Scuti, Mira etc. The eruptive or cataclysmic variables are novae, supernovae, etc., which rarely occurs and are not periodic phenomena. Most of the other variations are periodic in nature. Variable stars can be observed through many ways such as photometry, spectrophotometry and spectroscopy. The sequence of photometric observa- xiv tions on variable stars produces time series data, which contains time, magni- tude and error. The plot between variable star’s apparent magnitude and time are known as light curve. If the time series data is folded on a period, the plot between apparent magnitude and phase is known as phased light curve. The unique shape of phased light curve is a characteristic of each type of variable star. One way to identify the type of variable star and to classify them is by visually looking at the phased light curve by an expert. For last several years, automated algorithms are used to classify a group of variable stars, with the help of computers. Research on variable stars can be divided into different stages like observa- tion, data reduction, data analysis, modeling and classification. The modeling on variable stars helps to determine the short-term and long-term behaviour and to construct theoretical models (for eg:- Wilson-Devinney model for eclips- ing binaries) and to derive stellar properties like mass, radius, luminosity, tem- perature, internal and external structure, chemical composition and evolution. The classification requires the determination of the basic parameters like pe- riod, amplitude and phase and also some other derived parameters. Out of these, period is the most important parameter since the wrong periods can lead to sparse light curves and misleading information. Time series analysis is a method of applying mathematical and statistical tests to data, to quantify the variation, understand the nature of time-varying phenomena, to gain physical understanding of the system and to predict future behavior of the system. Astronomical time series usually suffer from unevenly spaced time instants, varying error conditions and possibility of big gaps. This is due to daily varying daylight and the weather conditions for ground based observations and observations from space may suffer from the impact of cosmic ray particles. Many large scale astronomical surveys such as MACHO, OGLE, EROS, xv ROTSE, PLANET, Hipparcos, MISAO, NSVS, ASAS, Pan-STARRS, Ke- pler,ESA, Gaia, LSST, CRTS provide variable star’s time series data, even though their primary intention is not variable star observation. Center for Astrostatistics, Pennsylvania State University is established to help the astro- nomical community with the aid of statistical tools for harvesting and analysing archival data. Most of these surveys releases the data to the public for further analysis. There exist many period search algorithms through astronomical time se- ries analysis, which can be classified into parametric (assume some underlying distribution for data) and non-parametric (do not assume any statistical model like Gaussian etc.,) methods. Many of the parametric methods are based on variations of discrete Fourier transforms like Generalised Lomb-Scargle peri- odogram (GLSP) by Zechmeister(2009), Significant Spectrum (SigSpec) by Reegen(2007) etc. Non-parametric methods include Phase Dispersion Minimi- sation (PDM) by Stellingwerf(1978) and Cubic spline method by Akerlof(1994) etc. Even though most of the methods can be brought under automation, any of the method stated above could not fully recover the true periods. The wrong detection of period can be due to several reasons such as power leakage to other frequencies which is due to finite total interval, finite sampling interval and finite amount of data. Another problem is aliasing, which is due to the influence of regular sampling. Also spurious periods appear due to long gaps and power flow to harmonic frequencies is an inherent problem of Fourier methods. Hence obtaining the exact period of variable star from it’s time series data is still a difficult problem, in case of huge databases, when subjected to automation. As Matthew Templeton, AAVSO, states “Variable star data analysis is not always straightforward; large-scale, automated analysis design is non-trivial”. Derekas et al. 2007, Deb et.al. 2010 states “The processing of xvi huge amount of data in these databases is quite challenging, even when looking at seemingly small issues such as period determination and classification”. It will be beneficial for the variable star astronomical community, if basic parameters, such as period, amplitude and phase are obtained more accurately, when huge time series databases are subjected to automation. In the present thesis work, the theories of four popular period search methods are studied, the strength and weakness of these methods are evaluated by applying it on two survey databases and finally a modified form of cubic spline method is intro- duced to confirm the exact period of variable star. For the classification of new variable stars discovered and entering them in the “General Catalogue of Vari- able Stars” or other databases like “Variable Star Index“, the characteristics of the variability has to be quantified in term of variable star parameters.

Entwurf und Betrieb von Regelungs- und Monitoringsystemen für dezentrale Energiesysteme auf der Basis von verteilten Embedded Systems

Nach einem einleitenden ersten Kapitel wird im zweiten Kapitel der Stand der Technik für Regelungs- und Monitoringsysteme mit vernetzten Systemen dargestellt. Daraus wird die Motivation zur Entwicklung neuer, kostengünstiger Systeme abgeleitet. Im dritten Kapitel folgt eine Darstellung der verschiedenen Arten marktverfügbarer Embedded Systems und dafür geeigneter Betriebs­systeme. Anforderungen an verteilte Regelungssysteme, unterschiedliche Strukturen dieser Systeme und deren Vor- und Nachteile sind Gegenstand des vierten Kapitels. Anhand von Beispielen aus den Bereichen Erzeugungsmanagement für den Betrieb von KWK-Anlagen, Energieverbrauchsmonitoring und Smart-Metering wird der Einsatz von verteilten Regelungs- und Monitoringsystemen im fünften Kapitel dargestellt. Im folgenden sechsten Kapitel wird die Bedeutung normierter Kommunikation für den Einsatz in verteilten Systemen sowie dafür vorhandene Standards aus der elektrischen Energieversorgungstechnik und der Automatisierungstechnik behandelt. Der Stand der Internet-Technik für verteilte Systeme ist Gegenstand des siebten Kapitels. Dabei werden zunächst die verschiedenen drahtlosen und drahtgebundenen Kommunikationsmedien vorgestellt und ihre Eigenschaften und die Rand­bedingungen für ihren Einsatz erörtert. Ebenso werden technische Probleme beim Einsatz der Internet-Technik aufgezeigt und Lösungsmöglichkeiten für diese Probleme dargestellt. Es folgt eine Übersicht von Netzwerkdiensten, die für den Betrieb von verteilten Systemen notwendig sind. Außerdem werden Techniken zur Überwachung von verteilten Systemen behandelt. Kapitel acht zeigt Sicherheitsrisiken bei der Nutzung des Internets auf und bewertet verschiedene Techniken zur Absicherung des Netzwerkverkehrs. Kapitel neun stellt ein Internet-basiertes Client-Server-System zur Online-Visualisierung von Anlagendaten im Webbrowser mit Hilfe von Java-Applets und XML-RPC vor. Die Visualisierung von Anlagendaten auf Mobiltelefonen mit Hilfe des Wireless Application Protocol sowie die dafür notwendige Software und Infrastruktur ist Gegenstand des zehnten Kapitels. Im elften Kapitel wird eine neuartige Software für die Simulation von dezentralen Energiesystemen und deren Regelungs­systemen auf Basis von virtuellen Maschinen, virtuellen Netzwerken und einer thermischen Simulationsumgebung vorgestellt sowie deren Anwendung für die Reglerentwicklung erklärt. Verschiedene Techniken für die Installation von Betriebssystemen und Software für die Embedded Systems eines verteilten Systems werden im Kapitel zwölf untersucht. Im Kapitel 13 werden verschiedene Technologien zur Konfiguration und Parametrierung von Regelungssystemen in der industriellen Prozess- und Fertigungs­automatisierung hinsichtlich ihrer Eignung für dezentrale Energiesysteme analysiert. Anschließend wird eine Software zur Installation und Parametrierung von Monitoringsystemen sowie der dazugehörigen Infrastruktur vorgestellt. Kapitel 14 beschäftigt sich mit Anforderungen an die Hardware für verteilte Systeme und mit Maßnahmen zur Erhöhung der Betriebs- und der Datensicherheit. Im 15. Kapitel werden die in den bisherigen Kapiteln vorgestellten Techniken anhand eines großen verteilten Monitoringsystems und anhand eines Power Flow and Power Quality Management Systems auf Basis von verteilten Embedded Systems evaluiert. Kapitel 16 fasst die Ergebnisse der Arbeit zusammen und enthält einen Ausblick auf zukünftige Entwicklungen.

Stability of an ice sheet on an elastic bed

The stability of stationary flow of a two-dimensional ice sheet is studied when the ice obeys a power flow law (Glen's flow law). The mass accumulation rate at the top is assumed to depend on elevation and span and the bed supporting the ice sheet consists of an elastic layer lying on a rigid surface. The normal perturbation of the free surface of the ice sheet is a singular eigenvalue problem. The singularity of the perturbation at the front of the ice sheet is considered using matched asymptotic expansions, and the eigenvalue problem is seen to reduce to that with fixed ice front. Numerical solution of the perturbation eigenvalue problem shows that the dependence of accumulation rate on elevation permits the existence of unstable solutions when the equilibrium line is higher than the bed at the ice divide. Alternatively, when the equilibrium line is lower than the bed, there are only stable solutions. Softening of the bed, expressed through a decrease of its elastic modulus, has a stabilising effect on the ice sheet.

Um método primal-dual aplicado na resolução do problema de fluxo de potência ótimo

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Fluxo de potência ótimo reativo via método da função lagrangiana barreira modificada

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Determinação da solução ótima do problema de fluxo de potência ótimo via análise de sensibilidade

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)