Investigação de mutações no gene ATP13A2 como um fator de risco para a Doença de Parkinson em pacientes brasileiros

A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a desordem neurodegenerativa motora mais frequente, com uma prevalência de, aproximadamente, 1% entre indivíduos com mais de 60 anos de idade, aumentando para 4 a 5% entre os indivíduos com idade superior a 85 anos. Esta condição é caracterizada pela perda seletiva dos neurônios dopaminérgicos da substância negra e pela presença de inclusões protéicas ricas em α-sinucleína nos neurônios sobreviventes. Pouco se sabe sobre a etiologia e a patogênese da DP. A maioria dos casos aparece esporadicamente, podendo estar associados a diversos fatores de risco ambientais e genéticos. Na última década, estudos de ligação identificaram 15 loci cromossômicos (PARK1 a PARK15) relacionados à DP e, nestes, um novo gene, ATP13A2, tem sido associado a casos de DP de início precoce. Esse gene está situado no 1p36 e codifica a proteína ATPase tipo-P da subfamília P5, de localização lisossômica, que é expressa em diversos tecidos, principalmente no cérebro. Mutações em ATP13A2 levam à formação de proteínas truncadas que ficam retidas no reticulo endoplasmático e posteriormente são degradadas pelo proteossomo, podendo causar a disfunção proteossômica, decorrente da sobrecarga gerada pela proteína mutante, ou causar a disfunção lisossômica, ambas gerando agregação tóxica. Este trabalho tem como objetivo realizar a análise molecular do gene ATP13A2 em uma amostra de 116 pacientes brasileiros com DP, de manifestação precoce (<50 anos), de forma a avaliar se mutações neste gene representam um fator de risco para a DP. O DNA foi extraído a partir de leucócitos do sangue periférico ou de saliva e a análise molecular dos éxons 2, 3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 26 e 27, bem como, dos limites íntronéxons foi realizada por sequenciamento automático dos produtos da PCR. Identificamos oito variantes de sequência: quatro variantes intrônicas (uma no íntron 2, uma no íntron 13 e duas no íntron 27) e quatro variantes silenciosas (uma no éxon 3, 16, 26 e 27). Com base em dados da literatura e através de análises in silico e comparação com amostras controle, classificamos a alteração intrônica c.3084- 3C>T, e as alterações silenciosas c.2970G>A e c.3192C>T como não patogênicas; as alterações intrônicas c.106-30G>T, c.1306+42_1306+43 insC e c.3083+24C>T, e as alterações silenciosas c.132A>G e c.1610G>T foram classificadas como provavelmente não patogênicas. Nosso achados corroboram àqueles encontrados em outras populações e indicam que mutações no gene ATP13A2 não são uma causa comum de DP na amostra de pacientes brasileiros analisados. No entanto, se faz necessário estender nossas análises para outras regiões gênicas, a fim de determinar o real papel deste gene na etiologia da DP em nossa população.

Differential Neuroprotective Effects of 5 '-Deoxy-5 '-Methylthioadenosine

Background: 5'-deoxy-5'-methylthioadenosine (MTA) is an endogenous compound produced through the metabolism of polyamines. The therapeutic potential of MTA has been assayed mainly in liver diseases and, more recently, in animal models of multiple sclerosis. The aim of this study was to determine the neuroprotective effect of this molecule in vitro and to assess whether MTA can cross the blood brain barrier (BBB) in order to also analyze its potential neuroprotective efficacy in vivo. Methods: Neuroprotection was assessed in vitro using models of excitotoxicity in primary neurons, mixed astrocyte-neuron and primary oligodendrocyte cultures. The capacity of MTA to cross the BBB was measured in an artificial membrane assay and using an in vitro cell model. Finally, in vivo tests were performed in models of hypoxic brain damage, Parkinson's disease and epilepsy. Results: MTA displays a wide array of neuroprotective activities against different insults in vitro. While the data from the two complementary approaches adopted indicate that MTA is likely to cross the BBB, the in vivo data showed that MTA may provide therapeutic benefits in specific circumstances. Whereas MTA reduced the neuronal cell death in pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus and the size of the lesion in global but not focal ischemic brain damage, it was ineffective in preserving dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-pyridine (MPTP)-mice model. However, in this model of Parkinson's disease the combined administration of MTA and an A(2A) adenosine receptor antagonist did produce significant neuroprotection in this brain region. Conclusion: MTA may potentially offer therapeutic neuroprotection.

Relação entre fatores genéticos envolvidos em vias metabólicas mitocondriais e a doença de Parkinson

A doença de Parkinson (DP) é uma das desordens neurodegenerativas mais comuns associada ao envelhecimento, alcançando 2% aos 70 anos. É uma doença caracterizada pela degeneração progressiva de neurônios dopaminérgicos nigrais nos gânglios basais e pela presença de inclusões protéicas citoplasmáticas denominadas corpúsculos e neuritos de Lewy nos neurônios sobreviventes. A etiologia da DP é pouco conhecida, sendo considerada, na maioria dos casos, idiopática. Conhecimentos alcançados nos últimos 15 anos sobre a base genética da DP demonstram, claramente, que os fatores genéticos desempenham um importante papel na etiologia desta desordem. Neste trabalho, rastreamos mutações nos genes que codificam proteínas participantes de vias metabólicas mitocondriais (Parkin, PINK1 e DJ-1) em 136 pacientes brasileiros com manifestação precoce da DP, através do sequenciamento automático e da técnica de MLPA. Avaliamos a presença de variantes de sequência por meio do sequenciamento dos exons 1 a 12 do gene Parkin e dos exons 1 a 8 do gene PINK1. Em Parkin foram identificadas três mutações patogênicas ou potencialmente patogênicas, ambas em heterozigose: p.T240M, p.437L e p.S145N. Em PINK1 não encontramos variantes de ponto patogênicas. Através da técnica de MLPA investigamos alterações de dosagem nos genes Parkin, PINK1 e DJ-1. Identificamos cinco alterações no gene Parkin em quatro pacientes: uma duplicação heterozigota do exon 4 no paciente PAR2256, uma deleção heterozigota do exon 4 no probando PAR2099, uma deleção homozigota do exon 4 na paciente PAR3380 e um probando heterozigoto composto (PAR2396) com duas alterações, uma duplicação do exon 3 e uma deleção dos exons 5 e 6. No gene PINK1 identificamos uma deleção heterozigota do exon 1, que nunca foi descrita na literatura, em um paciente (PAR2083). Não encontramos alteração quantitativa no gene DJ-1. Neste estudo obtivemos uma frequência total de mutações patogênicas (pontuais e de dosagem) nos genes estudados de 7,3%, sendo 6,6% no gene Parkin e 0,7% no gene PINK1.

Investigação de variantes exônicas nos genes VPS35, EIF4G1 e LRRK2 como causa da doença de Parkinson em casuística brasileira

A doença de Parkinson (DP) é a segunda doença neurodegenerativa mais frequente no mundo, afetando 1-2% da população acima de 65 anos, caracterizada clinicamente por tremor em repouso, bradicinesia, instabilidade postural e rigidez muscular. Essas manifestações surgem devido à degeneração neuronal progressiva e à presença de inclusões proteicas ricas em α-sinucleína. A DP é decorrente da interação entre fatores ambientais e genéticos, e entre os fatores genéticos, variantes exônicas de transmissão dominante nos genes LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2), VPS35 (vacuolar protein sorting 35) e EIF4G1 (eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4-gamma 1) têm sido associadas à etiologia da doença. Entretanto, estudos sobre o efeito dessas variantes na população brasileira são raros ou inexistentes. Por essa razão, neste trabalho rastreamos mutações nos genes VPS35 (p.D620N; p.R524W), EIF4G1 (p.R1205H; p.A502V) e LRRK2 (p.G2019S) em uma amostra de 582 pacientes brasileiros com DP não aparentados e 329 indivíduos controles saudáveis. Além disso, conduzimos o primeiro estudo caso-controle para análise de variantes exônicas raras (p.Q1111H, p.T1410M, p.M1646T, p.S1761R, p.Y2189C) e comuns (p.N551K, p.R1398H, p.K1423K) no gene LRRK2 em um subgrupo de 329 pacientes brasileiros com DP, não aparentados, naturais da região sudeste. Esse subgrupo foi analisado e comparado com 222 indivíduos controles saudáveis a fim de verificar associações dessas variantes e a DP. Em relação às mutações dos genes VPS35 e EIF4G1, não foram encontradas alterações nos pacientes com DP. A mutação p.G2019S no gene LRRK2 foi encontrada em 15 probandos (2,6%), dos quais 9 são do sexo feminino (64,3%). O tremor em repouso foi observado em 47,36% dos pacientes com a mutação p.G2019S como primeiro sintoma motor. As análises das variantes raras no gene LRRK2 não revelaram qualquer associação estatisticamente significante. Entre as variantes comuns, a p.K1423K mostrou evidência de associação de risco com a DP (p<0,05) na estratificação contendo o grupo de indivíduos com história familiar da doença e para as variantes p.N551K e p.R1398H não foram observadas associações. A análise do haplótipo p.N551K-p.R1398H-p.K1423K revelou associação de proteção na amostra sudeste e na estratificação Rio de Janeiro (p<0,05). Esse haplótipo não está em desequilíbrio de ligação na amostra de 222 indivíduos controles brasileiros analisados (r2≤45). Os resultados obtidos neste estudo representam contribuições valiosas ao entendimento da relação entre as variantes genéticas estudadas e o risco de desenvolvimento da doença de Parkinson, principalmente no que se refere aos endofenótipos associados.

The adsorption of dopamine on gold and its interactions with iron(III) ions studied by microcantilevers

The adsorption of dopamine (DA) molecules on gold and their interactions with Fe3+ were studied by a microcantilever in a flow cell. The microcantilever bent toward the Au side with the adsorption of DA due to the change Of Surface stress induced by the intermolecular hydrogen bonds of DA or the charge transfer effect between adsorbates and the Substrate. The interaction process between DA adsorbates and Fe3+ was revealed by the deflection curves of microcantilever. As indicated by the appearance of a variation during the decline of curves, two steps were observed in the curve at relative high concentrations of Fe3+. In this case, Fe3+ reacted with DA molecules only in the outer layers and the complexes removed with solution. Then Fe3+ reacted further with DA molecules forming the surface complex in the first layer next to the gold. At this stage, the stability Of Surface complexes was time dependent, i.e., unstable initially and stable finally. This may be due to the surface complexes change from mono-dentate to bi-dentate complexes. In another case, i.e., at relative low concentration of Fe3+, only the first step was observed as indicated by the absence of a variation.

Studies of interaction between iron (III) and intermediates of synthetic neuromelanin by means of cyclic voltammetry of Fe(CN)(3-)(6) and dopamine

Neuromelanin is a complex polymer pigment found primarily in the dopaminergic neurons of the human substantia nigra, whose composition is complex including production of dopamine auto-oxidation, glutathione and a variety of amino acid. Neuromelanin forms stable complex with iron (111). We observed that 5,6-dihydroxyindole and its ramification possessed strong ability of chelating iron (111), and they are the production of dopamine auto-oxidation under physiological pH condition. In the present Of L-Cysteine, the relative yields of electrochemical oxidation of dopamine also had strong ability of chelating iron (111). The experimental results suggest that 5,6-dihydroxyindole and 5-S-cysteineldopamine play important roles in the process of synthetic neuromelanin chelating iron (111).

Neuroprotective and immunomodulatory properties of the new PPARγ agonist MDG548: an in vitro and in vivo study in PD models

Neuroinflammation is a key component of Parkinson’s disease (PD) neuropathology. Skewed microglia activation with pro-inflammatory prevailing over anti-inflammatory phenotypes may contribute to neurotoxicity via the production of cytokines and neurotoxic species. Therefore, microglia polarization has been proposed as a target for neuroprotection. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) is expressed in microglia and peripheral immune cells, where it is involved in macrophages polarization and in the control of inflammatory responses, by modulating gene transcription. Several studies have shown that PPARγ agonists are neuroprotective in experimental PD models in rodents and primates. however safety concerns have been raised about PPARγ agonists thiazolidinediones (TZD) currently available, prompting for the development of non-TZD compounds. Aim of this study was to characterize a novel PPARγ agonist non TZD, MDG548, for its potential neuroprotective effect in PD models and its immunomodulatory activity as the underlying mechanism of neuroprotection. The neuroprotective activity of MDG548 was assessed in vivo in the subacute MPTP model and in the chronic MPTP/probenecid (MPTPp) model of PD. MDG548 activity on microglia activation and phenotype was investigated in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) via the evaluation of pro- (TNF-α and iNOS) and anti-inflammatory (CD206) molecules, with fluorescent immunohistochemistry. Moreover, cultured murine microglia MMGT12 were treated with MDG548 in association with the inflammagen LPS, pro- and anti-inflammatory molecules were measured in the medium by ELISA assay and phagocytosis was evaluated by fluorescent immunohistochemistry for CD68. MDG548 arrested dopaminergic cells degeneration in the SNc in both the subacute MPTP and the chronic MPTPp models of PD, and reverted MPTPp-induced motor impairment. Moreover, MDG548 reduced microglia activation, iNOS and TNF-α production, while induced CD206 in microglia. In cultured unstimulated microglia, LPS increased TNF-α production and CD68 expression, while decreased CD206 expression. MDG548 reverted LPS effect on TNF-α and CD206 restoring physiological levels, while strongly increased CD68 expression. Results suggest that the PPARγ agonist MDG548 is neuroprotective in experimental models of PD. MDG548 targets microglia polarization by correcting the imbalance between pro- over antiinflammatory molecules, offering a novel immunomodulatory approach to neuroprotection.

The role of the dopaminergic neurotrophin growth/differentiation factor-5 in the developing rat ventral midbrain

Growth differentiation factor-5 (GDF-5) is a member of the transforming growth factor-β superfamily, a family of proteins that play diverse roles in many aspects of cell growth, proliferation and differentiation. GDF-5 has also been shown to be a trophic factor for embryonic midbrain dopaminergic neurons in vitro (Krieglstein et al. 1995) and after transplantation to adult rats in vivo (Sullivan et al. 1998). GDF-5 has also been shown to have neuroprotective and neurorestorative effects on adult dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra in animal models of Parkinson’s disease (Sullivan et al. 1997, 1999; Hurley et al. 2004). This experimental evidence has lead to GDF-5 being proposed as a neurotrophic factor with potential for use in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. However, it is not know if GDF-5 is expressed in the brain and whether it plays a role in dopaminergic neuron development. The experiments presented here aim to address these questions. To that end this thesis is divided into five separate studies each addressing a particular question associated with GDF-5 and its expression patterns and roles during the development of the rat midbrain. Expression of the GDF-5 in the developing rat ventral mesencephalon (VM) was found to begin at E12 and peak on E14, the day that dopaminergic neurons undergo terminal differentiation. In the adult rat, GDF-5 was found to be restricted to heart and brain, being expressed in many areas of the brain, including striatum and midbrain. This indicated a role for GDF-5 in the development and maintenance of dopaminergic neurons. The appropriate receptors for GDF-5 (BMPR-II and BMPR-Ib) were found to be expressed at high levels in the rat VM at E14 and BMPR-II expression was demonstrated on dopaminergic neurons in the E13 mouse VM. GDF-5 resulted in a three-fold increase in the numbers of dopaminergic neurons in cultures of E14 rat VM, without affecting the numbers of neurones or total cells. GDF-5 was found to increase the proportion of neurons that were dopaminergic. The numbers of Nurr1-positive cells were not affected by GDF-5 treatment, but GDF-5 did increase the numbers of Nurr1- positive cells that expressed tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Taken together this data indicated that GDF-5 increases the conversion of Nurr1-positive, TH-negative cells to Nurr1-positive, TH-positive cells. In GDF-5 treated cultures, total neurite length, neurite arborisation and somal area of dopaminergic were all significantly increased compared to control cultures. Thus this study showed that GDF-5 increased the numbers and morphological differentiation of VM dopaminergic neurones in vitro. In order to examine if GDF-5 could induce a dopaminergic phenotype in neural progenitor cells, neurosphere cultures prepared from embryonic rat VM were established. The effect of the gestational age of the donor VM on the proportion of cell types generated from neurospheres from E12, E13 and E14 VM was examined. Dopaminergic neurons could only be generated from neurospheres which were prepared from E12 VM. Thus in subsequent studies the effect of GDF-5 on dopaminergic induction was examined in progentior cell cultures prepared from the E12 rat VM. In primary cultures of E12 rat VM, GDF-5 increased the numbers of TH-positive cells without affecting the proliferation or survival of these cells. In cultures of expanded neural progenitor cells from the E12 rat VM, GDF-5 increased the expression of Nurr1 and TH, an action that was dependent on signalling through the BMPR-Ib receptor. Taken together, these experiments provide evidence that GDF-5 is expressed in the developing rat VM, is involved in both the induction of a dopaminergic phenotype in cells of the VM and in the subsequent morphological development of these dopaminergic neurons

Characterisation of the role of canonical BMP-Smad 1/5/8 signalling in the development of ventral midbrain dopaminergic neurons

Ventral midbrain (VM) dopaminergic (DA) neurons, which project to the dorsal striatum via the nigrostriatal pathway, are progressively degenerated in Parkinson’s disease (PD). The identification of the instructive factors that regulate midbrain DA neuron development, and the subsequent elucidation of the molecular bases of their effects, is vital. Such an understanding would facilitate the generation of transplantable DA neurons from stem cells and the identification of developmentally-relevant neurotrophic factors, the two most promising therapeutic approaches for PD. Two related members of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) family, BMP2 and growth/differentiation factor (GDF) 5, which signal via a canonical Smad 1/5/8 signalling pathway, have been shown to have neurotrophic effects on midbrain DA neurons both in vitro and in vivo, and may function to regulate VM DA neuronal development. However, the molecular (signalling pathway(s)) and cellular (direct neuronal or indirect via glial cells) mechanisms of their effects remain to be elucidated. The present thesis hypothesised that canonical Smad signalling mediates the direct effects of BMP2 and GDF5 on the development of VM DA neurons. By activating, modulating and/or inhibiting various components of the BMP-Smad signalling pathway, this research demonstrated that GDF5- and BMP2-induced neurite outgrowth from midbrain DA neurons is dependent on BMP type I receptor activation of the Smad signalling pathway. The role of glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)-signalling, dynamin-dependent endocytosis and Smad interacting protein-1 (Sip1) regulation, in the neurotrophic effects of BMP2 and GDF5 were determined. Finally, the in vitro development of VM neural stem cells (NSCs) was characterised, and the ability of GDF5 and BMP2 to induce these VM NSCs towards DA neuronal differentiation was investigated. Taken together, these experiments identify GDF5 and BMP2 as novel regulators of midbrain DA neuronal induction and differentiation, and demonstrate that their effects on DA neurons are mediated by canonical BMPR-Smad signalling.

Drug Delivery through the Blood-Brain Barrier through Use of Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule 1- Targeted Nanoparticles

The blood brain barrier (BBB) is a semi-permeable membrane separating the brain from the bloodstream, preventing many drugs that treat neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, from reaching the brain. Our project aimed to create a novel drug delivery system targeting the brain during neural inflammation. We developed a cationic solid lipid nanoparticle (CSLN) complex composed of cationic nanoparticles, biotin, streptavidin, and anti-vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (anti- VCAM-1) antibodies. The anti-VCAM-1 antibody is used to target VCAM-1, a cell adhesion protein found on the BBB endothelium. VCAM-1 expression is elevated in the presence of inflammatory molecules, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF- α). Through the use of a simple BBB model, results showed that our novel drug delivery system experienced some level of success in targeting the brain inflammation due to increasing TNF-α concentrations. This is promising for drug delivery research and provides support for VCAM-1 targeting using more robust and complex BBB models.

Clinical traits of LRRK2-associated parkinson's disease in ireland: a link between familial and idiopathic PD

The role of genetics in parkinsonism has been confirmed over the last decade with the identification of genetic variation in seven genes, which are causative in familial forms of the disorder. A number of pathogenic mutations have been identified in the latest gene LRRK2, with a Gly2019Ser amino acid substitution identified in two siblings and one patient with idiopathic Parkinson's disease from Ireland. The clinical features resemble the idiopathic variant with a tremor predominant clinical picture shared by the siblings, slow progression of symptoms, and no observation of cognitive disturbance in all. The family and the sporadic individual were apparently not related and originated from different regions of Ireland, although haplotype analysis does suggest they share a common founder. The influence of the G2019S substitution on protein function and disease phenotype has yet to be fully resolved, but its elucidation will undoubtedly further our understanding of the mechanisms underlying Parkinson's disease.

Inhibitors of alpha-synuclein oligomerization and toxicity: a future therapeutic strategy for Parkinson's disease and related disorders.

An abundance of genetic, histopathological, and biochemical evidence has implicated the neuronal protein, alpha-synuclein (alpha-syn) as a key player in the development of several neurodegenerative diseases, the so-called synucleinopathies, of which Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most prevalent. Development of disease appears to be linked to events that increase the intracellular concentration of alpha-syn or cause its chemical modification, either of which can accelerate the rate at which it forms aggregates. Examples of such events include increased copy number of genes, decreased rate of degradation via the proteasome or other proteases, or altered forms of alpha-syn, such as truncations, missense mutations, or chemical modifications by oxidative reactions. Aggregated forms of the protein, especially newly formed soluble aggregates, are toxic to cells, so that one therapeutic strategy would be to reduce the rate at which such oligomerization occurs. We have therefore designed several peptides and also identified small molecules that can inhibit alpha-syn oligomerization and toxicity in vitro. These compounds could serve as lead compounds for the design of new drugs for the treatment of PD and related disorders in the future.