Circuits for Presaccadic Visual Remapping.

Saccadic eye movements rapidly displace the image of the world that is projected onto the retinas. In anticipation of each saccade, many neurons in the visual system shift their receptive fields. This presaccadic change in visual sensitivity, known as remapping, was first documented in the parietal cortex and has been studied in many other brain regions. Remapping requires information about upcoming saccades via corollary discharge. Analyses of neurons in a corollary discharge pathway that targets the frontal eye field (FEF) suggest that remapping may be assembled in the FEF's local microcircuitry. Complementary data from reversible inactivation, neural recording, and modeling studies provide evidence that remapping contributes to transsaccadic continuity of action and perception. Multiple forms of remapping have been reported in the FEF and other brain areas, however, and questions remain about reasons for these differences. In this review of recent progress, we identify three hypotheses that may help to guide further investigations into the structure and function of circuits for remapping.

Pseudoneglect and visual attention networks

Pseudoneglect represents the tendency for healthy individuals to show a slight but consistent bias in favour of stimuli appearing in the left visual field. The bias is often measured using variants of the line bisection task. An accurate model of the functional architecture of the visuospatial attention system must account for this widely observed phenomenon, as well as for modulation of the direction and magnitude of the bias within individuals by a variety of factors relating to the state of the participant and/or stimulus characteristics. To date, the neural correlates of pseudoneglect remain relatively unmapped. In the current thesis, I employed a combination of psychophysical measurements, electroencephalography (EEG) recording and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) in an attempt to probe the neural generator(s) of pseudoneglect. In particular, I wished to utilise and investigate some of the factors known to modulate the bias (including age, time-on-task and the length of the to-be-bisected line) in order to identify neural processes and activity that are necessary and sufficient for the lateralized bias to arise. Across four experiments utilising a computerized version of a perceptual line bisection task, pseudoneglect was consistently observed at baseline in healthy young participants. However, decreased line length (experiments 1, 2 and 3), time-on-task (experiment 1) and healthy aging (experiment 3) were all found to modulate the bias. Specifically, all three modulations induced a rightward shift in subjective midpoint estimation. Additionally, the line length and time-on-task effects (experiment 1) and the line length and aging effects (experiment 3) were found to have additive relationships. In experiment 2, EEG measurements revealed the line length effect to be reflected in neural activity 100 – 200ms post-stimulus onset over source estimated posterior regions of the right hemisphere (RH: temporo-parietal junction (TPJ)). Long lines induced a hemispheric asymmetry in processing (in favour of the RH) during this period that was absent in short lines. In experiment 4, bi-parietal tDCS (Left Anodal/Right Cathodal) induced a polarity-specific rightward shift in bias, highlighting the crucial role played by parietal cortex in the genesis of pseudoneglect. The opposite polarity (Left Cathodal/Right Anodal) did not induce a change in bias. The combined results from the four experiments of the current thesis provide converging evidence as to the crucial role played by the RH in the genesis of pseudoneglect and in the processing of visual input more generally. The reduction in pseudoneglect with decreased line length, increased time-on-task and healthy aging may be explained by a reduction in RH function, and hence contribution to task processing, induced by each of these modulations. I discuss how behavioural and neuroimaging studies of pseudoneglect (and its various modulators) can provide empirical data upon which accurate formal models of visuospatial attention networks may be based and further tested.

Mapping and modulating spatial attention asymmetries in young and older adults

Healthy young adults demonstrate a group-level, systematic preference for stimuli presented in the left side of space relative to the right (‘pseudoneglect’) (Bowers & Heilman, 1980). This results in an overestimation of features such as size, brightness, numerosity and spatial frequency in the left hemispace, probably as a result of right cerebral hemisphere dominance for visuospatial attention. This spatial attention asymmetry is reduced in the healthy older population, and can be shifted entirely into right hemispace under certain conditions. Although this rightward shift has been consistently documented in behavioural experiments, there is very little neuroimaging evidence to explain this effect at a neuroanatomical level. In this thesis, I used behavioural methodology and electroencephalography (EEG) to map spatial attention asymmetries in young and older adults. I then use transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to modulate these spatial biases, with the aim of assessing age-related differences in response to tDCS. In the first of three experiments presented in this thesis, I report in Chapter Two that five different spatial attention tasks provide consistent intra-task measures of spatial bias in young adults across two testing days. There were, however, no inter-task correlations between the five tasks, indicating that pseudoneglect is at least partially driven by task-dependent patterns of neural activity. In Chapter Three, anodal tDCS was applied separately to the left (P5) and right (P6) posterior parietal cortex (PPC) in young and older adults, with an aim to improve the detection of stimuli appearing in the contralateral visual field. There were no age differences in response to tDCS, but there were significant differences depending on baseline performance. Relative to a sham tDCS protocol, tDCS applied to the right PPC resulted in maintained visual detection across both visual fields in adults who were good at the task at baseline. In contrast, left PPC tDCS resulted in reduced detection sensitivity across both visual fields in poor performers. Finally, in Chapter Four, I report a right-hemisphere lateralisation of EEG activity in young adults that was present for long (but not short) landmark task lines. In contrast, older adults demonstrated no lateralised activity for either line length, thus providing novel evidence of an age-related reduction of hemispheric asymmetry in older adults. The results of this thesis provide evidence of a highly complex set of factors that underlie spatial attention asymmetries in healthy young and older adults.

Attentional modulation of visual cortex activity following right parietal damage in humans

Pathological inattention following parietal damage causes perceptual impairments for visual stimuli in the contralesional hemifield. Here we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine visual cortex activity in parietal patients as they performed a spatial attention task. Righthemisphere patients and healthy controls viewed counterphasing checkerboards in which coloured targets appeared briefly within the contralesional and ipsilesional hemifields. In separate fMRI runs participants focused their attention covertiy on the left or right hemifield, or on both hemifields concurrentiy. They were required to detect coloured targets that appeared briefly within the attended hemifield(s), and to withhold responses to distractor stimuli. Neural activit}' was significantly attenuated in early visual areas within the damaged hemisphere. Crucially, although attention significantiy modulated early visual activit}' within the intact (left) hemisphere, there was relatively littie modulation of activity within the affected hemisphere. Our findings suggest that parietal lesions alter early cortical responses to contralesional visual inputs.

Activity in inferior parietal and medial prefrontal cortex signals the accumulation of evidence in a probability learning task.

In an uncertain environment, probabilities are key to predicting future events and making adaptive choices. However, little is known about how humans learn such probabilities and where and how they are encoded in the brain, especially when they concern more than two outcomes. During functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), young adults learned the probabilities of uncertain stimuli through repetitive sampling. Stimuli represented payoffs and participants had to predict their occurrence to maximize their earnings. Choices indicated loss and risk aversion but unbiased estimation of probabilities. BOLD response in medial prefrontal cortex and angular gyri increased linearly with the probability of the currently observed stimulus, untainted by its value. Connectivity analyses during rest and task revealed that these regions belonged to the default mode network. The activation of past outcomes in memory is evoked as a possible mechanism to explain the engagement of the default mode network in probability learning. A BOLD response relating to value was detected only at decision time, mainly in striatum. It is concluded that activity in inferior parietal and medial prefrontal cortex reflects the amount of evidence accumulated in favor of competing and uncertain outcomes.

Antinociception induced by epidural motor cortex stimulation in naive conscious rats is mediated by the opioid system

Epidural motor cortex stimulation (MCS) has been used for treating patients with neuropathic pain resistant to other therapeutic approaches. Experimental evidence suggests that the motor cortex is also involved in the modulation of normal nociceptive response, but the underlying mechanisms of pain control have not been clarified yet. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of epidural electrical MCS on the nociceptive threshold of naive rats. Electrodes were placed on epidural motor cortex, over the hind paw area, according to the functional mapping accomplished in this study. Nociceptive threshold and general activity were evaluated under 15-min electrical stimulating sessions. When rats were evaluated by the paw pressure test, MCS induced selective antinociception in the paw contralateral to the stimulated cortex, but no changes were noticed in the ipsilateral paw. When the nociceptive test was repeated 15 min after cessation of electrical stimulation, the nociceptive threshold returned to basal levels. On the other hand, no changes in the nociceptive threshold were observed in rats evaluated by the tail-flick test. Additionally, no behavioral or motor impairment were noticed in the course of stimulation session at the open-field test. Stimulation of posterior parietal or somatosensory cortices did not elicit any changes in the general activity or nociceptive response. Opioid receptors blockade by naloxone abolished the increase in nociceptive threshold induced by MCS. Data shown herein demonstrate that epidural electrical MCS elicits a substantial and selective antinociceptive effect, which is mediated by opioids. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Visuospatial processing and the function of prefrontal-parietal networks in autism spectrum disorders: a functional MRI study

Objective: Individuals with autism spectrum disorders typically have normal visuospatial abilities but impaired executive functioning, particularly in abilities related to working memory and attention. The aim of this study was to elucidate the functioning of frontoparietal networks underlying spatial working memory processes during mental rotation in persons with autism spectrum disorders. Method: Seven adolescent males with normal IQ with an autism spectrum disorder and nine age- and IQ-matched male comparison subjects underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging scans while performing a mental rotation task. Results: The autism spectrum disorders group showed less activation in lateral and medial premotor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate gyrus, and caudate nucleus. Conclusions: The finding of less activation in prefrontal regions but not in parietal regions supports a model of dysfunction of frontostriatal networks in autism spectrum disorders.

Changes of somatomotor and parietal regions produced by different amounts of electrical stimulation

Our study aims to investigate changes in electrocortical activity by observing the variations in absolute theta power in the primary somatomotor and parietal regions of the brain under three different electrical stimulation conditions: control group (without stimulation), group 24 (24 trials of stimulation) and group 36 (36 trials of stimulation). Thus, our hypothesis is that the application of different patterns of electrical stimulation will promote different states of habituation in these regions. The sample was composed of 24 healthy (absence of mental and physical impairments) students (14 male and 10 female), with ages varying from 25 to 40 years old (32.5 +/- 7.5), who are right-handed (Edinburgh Inventory). The subjects were randomly distributed into three groups: control (n = 8), G24 (n = 8) and G36 (n = 8). We use the Functional electrical stimulation (FES) equipment (NeuroCompact-2462) to stimulate the right index finger extensor muscle, while the electroencephalographic signal was simultaneously recorded. We found an interaction between condition and block factors for the C3 and P3 electrode, a condition and block main effects for the C4 electrode, and a condition main effect for the P4 electrode. Our results support the hypothesis that electrical stimulation promotes neurophysiological changes. It appears that stimulus adaptation (accommodation) of specific circuits can strengthen the brain`s ability to distinguish between and respond to such stimuli over time. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

The effects of bromazepam over the temporo-parietal areas during the performance of a visuomotor task: A qEEG study

This study investigated the effects of bromazepam on qEEG when 14 healthy subjects were asked to perform a visuomotor task (i.e., motor vehicle driving task). The subjects were exposed to two experimental conditions: the placebo (PL) and 6 mg of bromazepam (Br 6 mg), following a randomized, double-blind design on different days. Specifically, we observe absolute power extracted from qEEG data for theta band. We expected to see a decrease in absolute theta power in the temporal and parietal areas due to the influence of bromazepam for the experimental group when compared with the placebo group. We found a main effect for the condition factor for electrodes T3, T4, P3 and P4. We also observed a main effect for the period factor for electrodes P3 and P4. We observed that the ingestion of 6 mg of bromazepam induces different patterns in theta power at the temporal and parietal sites. We concluded that 6 mg of bromazepam was an important factor in the fluctuation of the activities in the temporal and parietal areas. We then hypothesize about the specific role of this drug during the execution of a visuomotor task and within the sensorimotor integration process. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Dendritic branching patterns of pyramidal cells in the visual cortex of the new world marmoset monkey, with comparative notes on the old world macaque monkey

The basal dendritic arbors of 442 supragranular pyramidal cells in visual cortex of the marmoset monkey were compared by fractal analyses. As detailed in a previous study,(1) individual cells were injected with Lucifer Yellow and processed for a DAB reaction product. The basal dendritic arbors were drawn, in the tangential plane, and the fractal dimension (D) determined by the dilation method. The fractal dimensions were compared between cells in ten cortical areas containing cells involved in visual processing, including the primary visual area (Vi), the second visual area (V2), the dorsoanterior area (DA), the dorsomedial area (DM), the dorsolateral. area (DL), the middle temporal area (MT), the posterior parietal area (PP), the fundus of the superior temporal area (FST) and the caudal and rostral subdivisions of inferotemporal cortex (ITc and ITr, respectively). Of 45 pairwise interareal comparisons of the fractal dimension of neurones, 20 were significantly different. Moreover, comparison of data according to previously published visual processing pathways revealed a trend for cells with greater fractal dimensions in higher cortical areas. Comparison of the present results with those in homologous cortical areas in the macaque monkey(2) revealed some similarities between the two species. The similarity in the trends of D values of cells in both species may reflect developmental features which, result in different functional attributes.

Primary motor cortex involvement in Alzheimer disease.

In Alzheimer disease (AD) the involvement of entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, and associative cortical areas is well established. Regarding the involvement of the primary motor cortex the reported data are contradictory. In order to determine whether the primary motor cortex is involved in AD, the brains of 29 autopsy cases were studied, including, 17 cases with severe cortical AD-type changes with definite diagnoses of AD, 7 age-matched cases with discrete to moderate cortical AD-type changes, and 5 control cases without any AD-type cortical changes. Morphometric analysis of the cortical surface occupied by senile plaques (SPs) on beta-amyloid-immunostained sections and quantitative analysis of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) on Gallyas-stained sections was performed in 5 different cortical areas including the primary motor cortex. The percentage of cortical surface occupied by SPs was similar in all cortical areas, without significant difference and corresponded to 16.7% in entorhinal cortex, 21.3% in frontal associative, 16% in parietal associative, and 15.8% in primary motor cortex. The number of NFTs in the entorhinal cortex was significantly higher (41 per 0.4 mm2), compared with those in other cortical areas (20.5 in frontal, 17.9 in parietal and 11.5 in the primary motor cortex). Our findings indicate that the primary motor cortex is significantly involved in AD and suggest the appearance of motor dysfunction in late and terminal stages of the disease.

Mapping the structural core of human cerebral cortex.

Structurally segregated and functionally specialized regions of the human cerebral cortex are interconnected by a dense network of cortico-cortical axonal pathways. By using diffusion spectrum imaging, we noninvasively mapped these pathways within and across cortical hemispheres in individual human participants. An analysis of the resulting large-scale structural brain networks reveals a structural core within posterior medial and parietal cerebral cortex, as well as several distinct temporal and frontal modules. Brain regions within the structural core share high degree, strength, and betweenness centrality, and they constitute connector hubs that link all major structural modules. The structural core contains brain regions that form the posterior components of the human default network. Looking both within and outside of core regions, we observed a substantial correspondence between structural connectivity and resting-state functional connectivity measured in the same participants. The spatial and topological centrality of the core within cortex suggests an important role in functional integration.

Low-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation over left dorsal premotor cortex improves the dynamic control of visuospatially cued actions.

Left rostral dorsal premotor cortex (rPMd) and supramarginal gyrus (SMG) have been implicated in the dynamic control of actions. In 12 right-handed healthy individuals, we applied 30 min of low-frequency (1 Hz) repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) over left rPMd to investigate the involvement of left rPMd and SMG in the rapid adjustment of actions guided by visuospatial cues. After rTMS, subjects underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while making spatially congruent button presses with the right or left index finger in response to a left- or right-sided target. Subjects were asked to covertly prepare motor responses as indicated by a directional cue presented 1 s before the target. On 20% of trials, the cue was invalid, requiring subjects to readjust their motor plan according to the target location. Compared with sham rTMS, real rTMS increased the number of correct responses in invalidly cued trials. After real rTMS, task-related activity of the stimulated left rPMd showed increased task-related coupling with activity in ipsilateral SMG and the adjacent anterior intraparietal area (AIP). Individuals who showed a stronger increase in left-hemispheric premotor-parietal connectivity also made fewer errors on invalidly cued trials after rTMS. The results suggest that rTMS over left rPMd improved the ability to dynamically adjust visuospatial response mapping by strengthening left-hemispheric connectivity between rPMd and the SMG-AIP region. These results support the notion that left rPMd and SMG-AIP contribute toward dynamic control of actions and demonstrate that low-frequency rTMS can enhance functional coupling between task-relevant brain regions and improve some aspects of motor performance.

Intrahemispheric cortico-cortical connections of the human auditory cortex.

The human auditory cortex comprises the supratemporal plane and large parts of the temporal and parietal convexities. We have investigated the relevant intrahemispheric cortico-cortical connections using in vivo DSI tractography combined with landmark-based registration, automatic cortical parcellation and whole-brain structural connection matrices in 20 right-handed male subjects. On the supratemporal plane, the pattern of connectivity was related to the architectonically defined early-stage auditory areas. It revealed a three-tier architecture characterized by a cascade of connections from the primary auditory cortex to six adjacent non-primary areas and from there to the superior temporal gyrus. Graph theory-driven analysis confirmed the cascade-like connectivity pattern and demonstrated a strong degree of segregation and hierarchy within early-stage auditory areas. Putative higher-order areas on the temporal and parietal convexities had more widely spread local connectivity and long-range connections with the prefrontal cortex; analysis of optimal community structure revealed five distinct modules in each hemisphere. The pattern of temporo-parieto-frontal connectivity was partially asymmetrical. In conclusion, the human early-stage auditory cortical connectivity, as revealed by in vivo DSI tractography, has strong similarities with that of non-human primates. The modular architecture and hemispheric asymmetry in higher-order regions is compatible with segregated processing streams and lateralization of cognitive functions.

Réorganisation fonctionnelle et structurale des cortex auditifs, visuels et associatifs chez les sourds profonds congénitaux ou prélinguaux

En raison de l’utilisation d’un mode de communication totalement différent de celui des entendants, le langage des signes, et de l’absence quasi-totale d’afférences en provenance du système auditif, il y a de fortes chances que d’importantes modifications fonctionnelles et structurales s’effectuent dans le cerveau des individus sourds profonds. Les études antérieures suggèrent que cette réorganisation risque d’avoir des répercussions plus importantes sur les structures corticales situées le long de la voie visuelle dorsale qu’à l’intérieur de celles situées à l’intérieur de la voie ventrale. L’hypothèse proposée par Ungerleider et Mishkin (1982) quant à la présence de deux voies visuelles dans les régions occipitales, même si elle demeure largement acceptée dans la communauté scientifique, s’en trouve aussi relativement contestée. Une voie se projetant du cortex strié vers les régions pariétales postérieures, est impliquée dans la vision spatiale, et l’autre se projetant vers les régions du cortex temporal inférieur, est responsable de la reconnaissance de la forme. Goodale et Milner (1992) ont par la suite proposé que la voie dorsale, en plus de son implication dans le traitement de l’information visuo-spatiale, joue un rôle dans les ajustements sensori-moteurs nécessaires afin de guider les actions. Dans ce contexte, il est tout à fait plausible de considérer qu’un groupe de personne utilisant un langage sensori-moteur comme le langage des signes dans la vie de tous les jours, s’expose à une réorganisation cérébrale ciblant effectivement la voie dorsale. L’objectif de la première étude est d’explorer ces deux voies visuelles et plus particulièrement, la voie dorsale, chez des individus entendants par l’utilisation de deux stimuli de mouvement dont les caractéristiques physiques sont très similaires, mais qui évoquent un traitement relativement différent dans les régions corticales visuelles. Pour ce faire, un stimulus de forme définie par le mouvement et un stimulus de mouvement global ont été utilisés. Nos résultats indiquent que les voies dorsale et ventrale procèdent au traitement d’une forme définie par le mouvement, tandis que seule la voie dorsale est activée lors d’une tâche de mouvement global dont les caractéristiques psychophysiques sont relativement semblables. Nous avons utilisé, subséquemment, ces mêmes stimulations activant les voies dorsales et ventrales afin de vérifier quels pourraient être les différences fonctionnelles dans les régions visuelles et auditives chez des individus sourds profonds. Plusieurs études présentent la réorganisation corticale dans les régions visuelles et auditives en réponse à l’absence d’une modalité sensorielle. Cependant, l’implication spécifique des voies visuelles dorsale et ventrale demeure peu étudiée à ce jour, malgré plusieurs résultats proposant une implication plus importante de la voie dorsale dans la réorganisation visuelle chez les sourds. Suite à l’utilisation de l’imagerie cérébrale fonctionnelle pour investiguer ces questions, nos résultats ont été à l’encontre de cette hypothèse suggérant une réorganisation ciblant particulièrement la voie dorsale. Nos résultats indiquent plutôt une réorganisation non-spécifique au type de stimulation utilisé. En effet, le gyrus temporal supérieur est activé chez les sourds suite à la présentation de toutes nos stimulations visuelles, peu importe leur degré de complexité. Le groupe de participants sourds montre aussi une activation du cortex associatif postérieur, possiblement recruté pour traiter l’information visuelle en raison de l’absence de compétition en provenance des régions temporales auditives. Ces résultats ajoutent aux données déjà recueillies sur les modifications fonctionnelles qui peuvent survenir dans tout le cerveau des personnes sourdes, cependant les corrélats anatomiques de la surdité demeurent méconnus chez cette population. Une troisième étude se propose donc d’examiner les modifications structurales pouvant survenir dans le cerveau des personnes sourdes profondes congénitales ou prélinguales. Nos résultats montrent que plusieurs régions cérébrales semblent être différentes entre le groupe de participants sourds et celui des entendants. Nos analyses ont montré des augmentations de volume, allant jusqu’à 20%, dans les lobes frontaux, incluant l’aire de Broca et d’autres régions adjacentes impliqués dans le contrôle moteur et la production du langage. Les lobes temporaux semblent aussi présenter des différences morphométriques même si ces dernières ne sont pas significatives. Enfin, des différences de volume sont également recensées dans les parties du corps calleux contenant les axones permettant la communication entre les régions temporales et occipitales des deux hémisphères.