Unidades de relevo em zona costeira estuarina: municípios de Colares e Santo Antônio do Tauá

Este trabalho tem por objetivo identificar e discutir as unidades de relevo dos municípios de Colares e Santo Antônio do Tauá, Estado do Pará, Brasil. Apresenta como objeto de estudo a compartimentação do relevo. A área de estudada se localiza na parte oriental do Golfão Marajoara, porção nordeste da baía de Marajó, em um trecho tipicamente estuarino da zona costeira. A pesquisa foi realizada com base em revisão de literatura, levantamento cartográfico, tratamento, interpretação e vetorização de imagens orbitais e trabalhos de campo. Duas escalas de análise foram trabalhadas. A primeira escala referiu-se à Zona Costeira Amazônica (ZCA), caracterizada por ser uma costa baixa, predominantemente sedimentar, sujeita a regime de macromarés em sua maior parte e fortemente influenciada pelas descargas fluviais condicionadas pelo clima úmido. A formação regional desta costa deve-se às flutuações do nível relativo do mar, oscilações climáticas e à neotectônica, atuantes ao longo do Cenozóico Superior. A porção oriental do Golfão Marajoara é constituída pelo estuário do rio Pará, que se comporta como um tidal river ou estuário dominado por correntes fluviais, apesar da influência das marés. As descargas fluviais são o fator principal da hidrodinâmica estuarina, constituição sedimentar e organização da biota. Trata-se de um ambiente costeiro mais protegido da ação de ondas e da deriva litorânea, em comparação com o litoral atlântico do Nordeste do Pará. Na segunda escala de trabalho foram identificadas 8 unidades de relevo: leito estuarino arenoso; banco lamoso de intermaré; planície de maré lamosa; praia estuarina; cordão arenoso; planície aluvial sob influência de maré; planície aluvial; tabuleiro. Apenas a unidade do tabuleiro é considerada como relevo erosivo. A seguir, discutiu-se a distribuição espacial das unidades de relevo, que mostrou a presença de dois setores específicos. O setor 1, situado a oeste, é amplamente influenciado por marés, e nele predominam formas de relevo de acumulação, com destaque para as planícies aluviais sob influência de maré, que ocupam maior área, fato que revela um esquema de transição entre o domínio marinho e o flúviocontinental. As várzeas sucedem os mangues para o interior, à medida que diminui a influência da água salgada. O esquema básico de distribuição sedimentar é representado por areias de fundo de canal e lamas depositadas nas margens durante a maré baixa. As praias são reduzidas, o que se explica pela menor atuação de ondas, e pelo papel decisivo das correntes de maré e das vazantes na dinâmica costeira. Cordões arenosos localizados no interior da planície costeira são o testemunho da progradação da linha de costa. Neste setor, os tabuleiros encontramse muito fragmentados, em consequência da erosão e sedimentação por marés, canais e águas das chuvas. O setor 2, a leste, não sofre influência de marés, e apresenta um relevo menos compartimentado, com tabuleiros seccionados pela rede de drenagem. A dissecação fluvial forma vales com estreitas planícies aluviais, fato que revela uma superfície erosiva mais ampla.

Estudo da viabilidade de implantação de plantas para conversão de energia térmica do oceano (OTEC) no Brasil

Pós-graduação em Engenharia Mecânica - FEIS

Uso das ondas de Lamb e Scholte para caracterização de líquidos

Pós-graduação em Engenharia Elétrica - FEIS

POPULATION BIOLOGY AND DIET OF THE SOUTHERN KINGCROAKER Menticirrhus americanus (LINNAEUS, 1758) (PERCIFORMES: SCIAENIDAE) IN CARAGUATATUBA BAY, SOUTHEASTERN BRAZIL

This study evaluated the spatio-temporal distribution, population biology and diet of Menticirrhus americanus in Caraguatatuba Bay. Samples were taken monthly between August 2003 and October 2004, by trawling in two previously selected areas. The northern area is more exposed to wave activity and is influenced by a river, functioning as a small estuary. In contrast, the southern area is relatively sheltered from wave energy and influenced to a lesser degree by smaller rivers. The fishes' length was measured, and the sex and gonadal stage macroscopically identified. The abundance of this species was compared between areas and among months. The diet was identified and quantified. M. americanus occurred in equal proportions in the two study areas, being most abundant in April 2004, followed by December 2003 and January 2004. The population was dominated by small immature individuals. The few individuals in maturation or mature that were captured showed no seasonal pattern of distribution. This species had a varied diet, feeding on worms (nemerteans, sipunculans and echiurans), mollusks (bivalves and cephalopods), polychaetes, crustaceans and fish. The presence of intact nematodes in the intestine suggests that these are parasites. The results demonstrated that M. americanus has a homogeneous spatial and temporal distribution in Caraguatatuba Bay, being uniformly distributed between the south and north areas as well as across the months. This species can be considered a carnivorous predator, showing a preference for consuming benthic sandy-beach species such as glycerids and other polychaetes, crustaceans, and bivalve siphons.

Records of sedimentary dynamics in the continental shelf and upper slope between Aveiro-Espinho (N Portugal)

The sedimentary unconsolidated cover of the Aveiro-Espinho continental shelf and upper slope (NW Portugal) records a complex interplay of processes including wave energy and currents, fluvial input, sediment transport alongshore and cross-shelf, geological and oceanographic processes and sediment sources and sinks. In order to study this record, a set of surface sediment samples was studied. Sediment grain size and composition, as well as the mineralogical composition (by XRD) of the fine (<63 mu m) and clay (<2 mu m) fractions and benthic microfaunal (foraminifera) data were analysed. Cluster analysis applied to the sedimentological data (grain size, sediment composition and mineralogy) allowed the establishment of three main zones corresponding to the: inner-, mid- and outer-shelf/upper slope. On the inner-shelf, the sedimentary coverture is composed of siliciclastic fine to very fine sand, essentially comprising modern (immature) terrigenous particles. The sediment grain size, as well as mineralogical and microfaunal composition, denote the high energetic conditions of this sector in which the alongshore transport of sand is predominantly southward and occurs mostly during the spring-summer oceanographic regime, when the main river providing sediments to this area, the River Douro, undergoes periods of drought. This effect may emphasize the erosive character of this coastal sector at present, since the Ria de Aveiro provides the shelf with few sediments. On the mid-shelf, an alongshore siliciclastic band of coarse sand and gravel can be found between the 40 m and 60 m isobaths. This gravelly deposit includes relic sediments deposited during lower sea-level stands. This structure stays on the surface due to the high bottom energy, which promotes the remobilization of the fine-grained sediments, and/or events of sediments bypassing. Benthic foraminifera density and "Benthic Foraminifera High Productivity" (BFHP) proxy values are in general low, which is consistent with the overall small supply of organic matter to the oceanic bottom in the inner- and mid-shelf. However, the Ria de Aveiro outflow, which delivers organic matter to the shelf, leaves its imprint mainly on the mid-shelf, identifiable by the increase in foraminifera density and BFHP values in front of the lagoon mouth. The higher values of BFHP along the 100 m isobath trace the present position of an oceanic thermal front whose situation may have changed in the last 3/5 ka BP. This zone marks a clear difference in the density, diversity and composition of benthic foraminifera assemblages. Here, in addition, sediment composition changes significantly, giving rise to carbonate-rich fine to medium sand in the deeper sector. The low bottom energy and the small sedimentation rate of the outer-shelf contributed to the preservation of a discontinuous carbonate-rich gravel band, between the 100 m and 140 m isobaths, also related to paleo-littorals, following the transgression that has occurred since the Last Glacial Maximum. The winter oceanographic regime favours the transport of fine grained sediments to the outer-shelf and upper slope. The inner- and mid-shelf, however, have low amounts of this kind of sediment and the Cretacic carbonated complexes Pontal da Galega and Pontal da Cartola, rocky outcrops located at the mid- and outer-shelf, act as morphological barriers to the cross-shelf transport of sediments. Thus a reduced sedimentation rate occurs in these deeper sectors, as indicated by the lower abundance of detrital minerals, which is compensated for the high sedimentary content of biogenic carbonates. The relatively high BFHP and Shannon Index values indicate water column stratification, high supply of organic matter and environmental stability, which provide favourable conditions for a diversified benthic fauna to flourish. These conditions also encourage authigenic chemical changes, favourable to glauconite formation, as well as illite and kaolinite degradation. Benthic foraminifera and clay mineral assemblages also reveal the effect of the internal waves pushing upward, and downslope losses of the sediments on the outer-shelf and upper slope.

Population biology and diet of the southern kingcroaker Menticirrhus americanus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Perciformes: Sciaenidae) in Caraguatatuba Bay, southeastern Brazil

This study evaluated the spatio-temporal distribution, population biology and diet of Menticirrhus americanus in Caraguatatuba Bay. Samples were taken monthly between August 2003 and October 2004, by trawling in two previously selected areas. The northern area is more exposed to wave activity and is influenced by a river, functioning as a small estuary. In contrast, the southern area is relatively sheltered from wave energy and influenced to a lesser degree by smaller rivers. The fishes' length was measured, and the sex and gonadal stage macroscopically identified. The abundance of this species was compared between areas and among months. The diet was identified and quantified. M. americanus occurred in equal proportions in the two study areas, being most abundant in April 2004, followed by December 2003 and January 2004. The population was dominated by small immature individuals. The few individuals in maturation or mature that were captured showed no seasonal pattern of distribution. This species had a varied diet, feeding on worms (nemerteans, sipunculans and echiurans), mollusks (bivalves and cephalopods), polychaetes, crustaceans and fish. The presence of intact nematodes in the intestine suggests that these are parasites. The results demonstrated that M. americanus has a homogeneous spatial and temporal distribution in Caraguatatuba Bay, being uniformly distributed between the south and north areas as well as across the months. This species can be considered a carnivorous predator, showing a preference for consuming benthic sandy-beach species such as glycerids and other polychaetes, crustaceans, and bivalve siphons.

Evolución de la transmisión de la energía del oleaje a través de un rompeolas flotante empleando un método SPH

[ES] Debido a la necesidad de proponer estructuras de protección costera que sean ambientalmente viables y operacionalmente efectivas, se propone como estructura para proteger el muelle de la Estación de Guardacostas de Santa Marta, Colombia, un Rompeolas Flotante; empleando para su diseño y validación un modelo en numérico de partículas en 2D, conocido como Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics. Desarrollando todo el proceso de validación y análisis de los casos para obtener resultados confiables y que permitan proponer un Rompeolas Flotante con dimensiones concretas, que atenúe el efecto del oleaje incidente en el muelle.

Performance Optimization of a Floating Breakwater Model Using SPH Method, with a Practical Application

Máster en Oceanografía

Two fluid numerical model for coastal applications

Wave breaking is an important coastal process, influencing hydro-morphodynamic processes such as turbulence generation and wave energy dissipation, run-up on the beach and overtopping of coastal defence structures. During breaking, waves are complex mixtures of air and water (“white water”) whose properties affect velocity and pressure fields in the vicinity of the free surface and, depending on the breaker characteristics, different mechanisms for air entrainment are usually observed. Several laboratory experiments have been performed to investigate the role of air bubbles in the wave breaking process (Chanson & Cummings, 1994, among others) and in wave loading on vertical wall (Oumeraci et al., 2001; Peregrine et al., 2006, among others), showing that the air phase is not negligible since the turbulent energy dissipation involves air-water mixture. The recent advancement of numerical models has given valuable insights in the knowledge of wave transformation and interaction with coastal structures. Among these models, some solve the RANS equations coupled with a free-surface tracking algorithm and describe velocity, pressure, turbulence and vorticity fields (Lara et al. 2006 a-b, Clementi et al., 2007). The single-phase numerical model, in which the constitutive equations are solved only for the liquid phase, neglects effects induced by air movement and trapped air bubbles in water. Numerical approximations at the free surface may induce errors in predicting breaking point and wave height and moreover, entrapped air bubbles and water splash in air are not properly represented. The aim of the present thesis is to develop a new two-phase model called COBRAS2 (stands for Cornell Breaking waves And Structures 2 phases), that is the enhancement of the single-phase code COBRAS0, originally developed at Cornell University (Lin & Liu, 1998). In the first part of the work, both fluids are considered as incompressible, while the second part will treat air compressibility modelling. The mathematical formulation and the numerical resolution of the governing equations of COBRAS2 are derived and some model-experiment comparisons are shown. In particular, validation tests are performed in order to prove model stability and accuracy. The simulation of the rising of a large air bubble in an otherwise quiescent water pool reveals the model capability to reproduce the process physics in a realistic way. Analytical solutions for stationary and internal waves are compared with corresponding numerical results, in order to test processes involving wide range of density difference. Waves induced by dam-break in different scenarios (on dry and wet beds, as well as on a ramp) are studied, focusing on the role of air as the medium in which the water wave propagates and on the numerical representation of bubble dynamics. Simulations of solitary and regular waves, characterized by both spilling and plunging breakers, are analyzed with comparisons with experimental data and other numerical model in order to investigate air influence on wave breaking mechanisms and underline model capability and accuracy. Finally, modelling of air compressibility is included in the new developed model and is validated, revealing an accurate reproduction of processes. Some preliminary tests on wave impact on vertical walls are performed: since air flow modelling allows to have a more realistic reproduction of breaking wave propagation, the dependence of wave breaker shapes and aeration characteristics on impact pressure values is studied and, on the basis of a qualitative comparison with experimental observations, the numerical simulations achieve good results.

Sistemi di ancoraggio per convertitori di energia da onda galleggianti

Il presente lavoro presenta una analisi di sensitività sui parametri progettuali più significativi per i sistemi di ancoraggio di dispositivi di produzione di energia del mare di tipo galleggiante, comunemente conosciuti come Floating Wave Energy Converters (F-WEC). I convertitori di questo tipo sono installati offshore e possono basarsi su diversi principi di funzionamento per la produzione di energia: lo sfruttamento del moto oscillatorio dell’onda (chiamati Wave Active Bodies, gran parte di convertitori appartengono la tecnologia di questo tipo), la tracimazione delle onde (Overtopping Devices), o il principio della colonna d’acqua oscillante (Oscillating Water Columns). La scelta del luogo di installazione dei tali dispositivi implica una adeguata progettazione del sistema di ancoraggio che ha lo scopo di mantenere il dispositivo in un intorno sufficientemente piccolo del punto dove è stato originariamente collocato. Allo stesso tempo, dovrebbero considerarsi come elemento integrato del sistema da progettare al fine di aumentare l’efficienza d’estrazione della potenza d’onda. Le problematiche principali relativi ai sistemi di ancoraggio sono: la resistenza del sistema (affidabilità, fatica) e l’economicità. Le due problematiche sono legate tra di loro in quanto dall’aumento del resistenza dipende l’aumento della complessità del sistema di ancoraggio (aumentano il numero delle linee, si utilizzano diametri maggiori, aumenta il peso per unità di lunghezza per ogni linea, ecc.). E’ però chiaro che sistemi più affidabili consentirebbero di abbassare i costi di produzione e renderebbero certamente più competitiva l’energia da onda sul mercato energetico. I dispositivi individuali richiedono approcci progettuali diversi e l’economia di un sistema di ormeggio è strettamente legata al design del dispositivo stesso. Esistono, ad oggi, una serie di installazioni a scala quasi di prototipo di sistemi WEC che hanno fallito a causa del collasso per proprio sistema di ancoraggio, attirando così l’attenzione sul problema di una progettazione efficiente, affidabile e sicura.

A comprehensive analysis of tidal notches in the Mediterranean Sea

Recent works (Evelpidou et al., 2012) suggest that the modern tidal notch is disappearing worldwide due sea level rise over the last century. In order to assess this hypothesis, we measured modern tidal notches in several of sites along the Mediterranean coasts. We report observations on tidal notches cut along carbonate coasts from 73 sites from Italy, France, Croatia, Montenegro, Greece, Malta and Spain, plus additional observations carried outside the Mediterranean. At each site, we measured notch width and depth, and we described the characteristics of the biological rim at the base of the notch. We correlated these parameters with wave energy, tide gauge datasets and rock lithology. Our results suggest that, considering 'the development of tidal notches the consequence of midlittoral bioerosion' (as done in Evelpidou et al., 2012) is a simplification that can lead to misleading results, such as stating that notches are disappearing. Important roles in notch formation can be also played by wave action, rate of karst dissolution, salt weathering and wetting and drying cycles. Of course notch formation can be augmented and favoured also by bioerosion which can, in particular cases, be the main process of notch formation and development. Our dataset shows that notches are carved by an ensemble rather than by a single process, both today and in the past, and that it is difficult, if not impossible, to disentangle them and establish which one is prevailing. We therefore show that tidal notches are still forming, challenging the hypothesis that sea level rise has drowned them.

Estudio en modelo físico a escala reducida de la viabilidad del empleo de buques fondeados como diques flotantes para abrigo portuario y defensa de costas

Los diques flotantes son estructuras que atenúan la energía del oleaje fundamentalmente por reflexión y turbulencia. Aunque presentan importantes ventajas en términos constructivos y medioambientales, su efectividad es limitada y en la práctica sólo se emplean en condiciones climáticas propias de zonas con oleajes poco energéticos. Por otro lado, el buque es la estructura flotante por excelencia y su empleo para el abrigo portuario y costero en determinadas situaciones puede aportar las ventajas propias de los diques flotantes, al tiempo que ampliar el rango de oleajes frente a los que estas estructuras son efectivas. El propósito de esta Tesis Doctoral es evaluar la viabilidad del empleo de buques fondeados como diques flotantes para el abrigo portuario y costero. Para ello, se han realizado ensayos en modelo físico a escala reducida en un canal de oleaje del Centro de Estudios de Puertos y Costas (CEPYC), con el objeto de determinar los coeficientes de transmisión (Ct), reflexión (Cr) y disipación (Cd) de barcos de diversas tipologías y dimensiones, sometidos a diferentes oleajes en distintas situaciones de carga, fondeo y profundidad del emplazamiento. La efectividad de los buques empleados en los ensayos se ha determinado mediante el análisis de dichos coeficientes y su variación con la altura de ola y el periodo de los oleajes incidentes. Además, se han registrado las fuerzas existentes en las cadenas de fondeo con objeto de comprobar la viabilidad del mismo y facilitar una estimación del diámetro de las cadenas que serían necesarias en cada situación. Posteriormente, se han aplicado los resultados obtenidos en los ensayos en modelo físico reducido a dos situaciones de abrigo portuario y costero. La primera aplicación consiste en el empleo de buques como defensa temporal en fases constructivas por medios marítimos, partiendo de la hipótesis de que, actuando como diques flotantes, puede proteger la zona de la obra y ampliar las ventanas temporales de periodos de actividad en obra marítima. Las actividades que se han analizado son las de dragado de fondos, vertidos de material granular y transporte y fondeo de cajones flotantes para diques y muelles. La segunda aplicación estudiada es el empleo de buques para la protección costera y la formación de salientes y tómbolos. Los coeficientes de transmisión obtenidos se han introducido en formulaciones analíticas que permiten prever la evolución de la costa frente a la protección procurada por el buque actuando como dique flotante exento. Finalmente se han redactado las conclusiones de la investigación y se han propuesto nuevas líneas de investigación relacionadas con esta Tesis Doctoral. Floating breakwaters are structures which attenuate wave energy mainly by reflection and turbulence. They display advantages in terms of construction and ecology, amongst others. However, their use is restricted in practice to certain areas with good climatic conditions and low energy waves. Moreover, ships are the most common floating structures and their use for port and coastal shelter in certain situations could widen the range of applicability in addition to the rest of advantages of floating breakwaters. The purpose of this research is to assess the feasibility of ships anchored as floating breakwaters for port and coastal protection. To that end, tests in a scaled down physical model have been conducted in a wave flume in the Centre of Port and Coastal Studies (CEPYC), in order to determine the transmission (Ct), reflection (Cr) and dissipation (Cd) coefficients of ships of diverse types and dimensions, under different wave, load, anchoring and depth conditions. The effectiveness of the several ships used in the tests has been determined by analyzing these coefficients and their variation with the wave height and period of the incident waves. In addition, the existing forces in the anchor chains have been registered to verify the feasibility of the anchoring systems, as well as to provide an estimation of the diameter of the chains that would be needed in each situation. Subsequently, the results of the tests have been applied to two situations of port and coastal protection. The first one is the use of ships as a temporary defense for maritime works with construction phases by maritime means, on the assumption that, acting as floating breakwaters, they can protect the work area and increase the time windows of periods of activity in maritime works. Dredging, dumping of granular material and transport and positioning of big concrete caissons for docks and breakwaters were the activities analyzed. The second situation is the use of ships for coastal protection and forming salients of sand or tombolos. Some analytical formulations which take into account the transmission coefficients from the tests have been used to predict the evolution of the coastline under the protection given by the ships acting as detached floating breakwaters. Finally, the conclusions of the research have been addressed and the proposal of new lines of work related to the topic has been made.

Hydrodynamic forces on heave plates for offshore systems oscillating close to the seabed or the free surface

La energía eólica marina es uno de los recursos energéticos con mayor proyección pudiendo contribuir a reducir el consumo de combustibles fósiles y a cubrir la demanda de energía en todo el mundo. El concepto de aerogenerador marino está basado en estructuras fijas como jackets o en plataformas flotantes, ya sea una semisumergible o una TLP. Se espera que la energía eólica offshore juegue un papel importante en el perfil de producción energética de los próximos años; por tanto, las turbinas eólicas deben hacerse más fables y rentables para ser competitivas frente a otras fuentes de energía. Las estructuras flotantes pueden experimentar movimientos resonantes en estados de la mar con largos períodos de oleaje. Estos movimientos disminuyen su operatividad y pueden causar daños en los componentes eléctricos de las turbinas y en las palas, también en los risers y moorings. La respuesta de la componente vertical del movimiento puede reducirse mediante diferentes actuaciones: (1) aumentando la amortiguación del sistema, (2) manteniendo el período del movimiento vertical fuera del rango de la energía de la ola, y (3) reduciendo las fuerzas de excitación verticales. Un ejemplo típico para llevar a cabo esta reducción son las "Heave Plates". Las heave plates son placas que se utilizan en la industria offshore debido a sus características hidrodinámicas, ya que aumentan la masa añadida y la amortiguación del sistema. En un análisis hidrodinámico convencional, se considera una estructura sometida a un oleaje con determinadas características y se evalúan las cargas lineales usando la teoría potencial. El amortiguamiento viscoso, que juega un papel crucial en la respuesta en resonancia del sistema, es un dato de entrada para el análisis. La tesis se centra principalmente en la predicción del amortiguamiento viscoso y de la masa añadida de las heave plates usadas en las turbinas eólicas flotantes. En los cálculos, las fuerzas hidrodinámicas se han obtenido con el f n de estudiar cómo los coeficientes hidrodinámicos de masa añadida5 y amortiguamiento varían con el número de KC, que caracteriza la amplitud del movimiento respecto al diámetro del disco. Por otra parte, se ha investigado la influencia de la distancia media de la ‘heave plate’ a la superficie libre o al fondo del mar, sobre los coeficientes hidrodinámicos. En este proceso, un nuevo modelo que describe el trabajo realizado por la amortiguación en función de la enstrofía, es descrito en el presente documento. Este nuevo enfoque es capaz de proporcionar una correlación directa entre el desprendimiento local de vorticidad y la fuerza de amortiguación global. El análisis también incluye el estudio de los efectos de la geometría de la heave plate, y examina la sensibilidad de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos al incluir porosidad en ésta. Un diseño novedoso de una heave plate, basado en la teoría fractal, también fue analizado experimentalmente y comparado con datos experimentales obtenidos por otros autores. Para la resolución de las ecuaciones de Navier Stokes se ha usado un solver basado en el método de volúmenes finitos. El solver usa las librerías de OpenFOAM (Open source Field Operation And Manipulation), para resolver un problema multifásico e incompresible, usando la técnica VOF (volume of fluid) que permite capturar el movimiento de la superficie libre. Los resultados numéricos han sido comparados con resultados experimentales llevados a cabo en el Canal del Ensayos Hidrodinámicos (CEHINAV) de la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid y en el Canal de Experiencias Hidrodinámicas (CEHIPAR) en Madrid, al igual que con otros experimentos realizados en la Escuela de Ingeniería Mecánica de la Universidad de Western Australia. Los principales resultados se presentan a continuación: 1. Para pequeños valores de KC, los coeficientes hidrodinámicos de masa añadida y amortiguamiento incrementan su valor a medida que el disco se aproxima al fondo marino. Para los casos cuando el disco oscila cerca de la superficie libre, la dependencia de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos es más fuerte por la influencia del movimiento de la superficie libre. 2. Los casos analizados muestran la existencia de un valor crítico de KC, donde la tendencia de los coeficientes hidrodinámicos se ve alterada. Dicho valor crítico depende de la distancia al fondo marino o a la superficie libre. 3. El comportamiento físico del flujo, para valores de KC cercanos a su valor crítico ha sido estudiado mediante el análisis del campo de vorticidad. 4. Introducir porosidad al disco, reduce la masa añadida para los valores de KC estudiados, pero se ha encontrado que la porosidad incrementa el valor del coeficiente de amortiguamiento cuando se incrementa la amplitud del movimiento, logrando un máximo de damping para un disco con 10% de porosidad. 5. Los resultados numéricos y experimentales para los discos con faldón, muestran que usar este tipo de geometrías incrementa la masa añadida cuando se compara con el disco sólido, pero reduce considerablemente el coeficiente de amortiguamiento. 6. Un diseño novedoso de heave plate basado en la teoría fractal ha sido experimentalmente estudiado a diferentes calados y comparado con datos experimentales obtenidos por otro autores. Los resultados muestran un comportamiento incierto de los coeficientes y por tanto este diseño debería ser estudiado más a fondo. ABSTRACT Offshore wind energy is one of the promising resources which can reduce the fossil fuel energy consumption and cover worldwide energy demands. Offshore wind turbine concepts are based on either a fixed structure as a jacket or a floating offshore platform like a semisubmersible, spar or tension leg platform. Floating offshore wind turbines have the potential to be an important part of the energy production profile in the coming years. In order to accomplish this wind integration, these wind turbines need to be made more reliable and cost efficient to be competitive with other sources of energy. Floating offshore artifacts, such oil rings and wind turbines, may experience resonant heave motions in sea states with long peak periods. These heave resonances may increase the system downtime and cause damage on the system components and as well as on risers and mooring systems. The heave resonant response may be reduced by different means: (1) increasing the damping of the system, (2) keeping the natural heave period outside the range of the wave energy, and (3) reducing the heave excitation forces. A typical example to accomplish this reduction are “Heave Plates”. Heave plates are used in the offshore industry due to their hydrodynamic characteristics, i.e., increased added mass and damping. Conventional offshore hydrodynamic analysis considers a structure in waves, and evaluates the linear and nonlinear loads using potential theory. Viscous damping, which is expected to play a crucial role in the resonant response, is an empirical input to the analysis, and is not explicitly calculated. The present research has been mainly focused on the prediction of viscous damping and added mass of floating offshore wind turbine heave plates. In the calculations, the hydrodynamic forces have been measured in order to compute how the hydrodynamic coefficients of added mass1 and damping vary with the KC number, which characterises the amplitude of heave motion relative to the diameter of the disc. In addition, the influence on the hydrodynamic coefficients when the heave plate is oscillating close to the free surface or the seabed has been investigated. In this process, a new model describing the work done by damping in terms of the flow enstrophy, is described herein. This new approach is able to provide a direct correlation between the local vortex shedding processes and the global damping force. The analysis also includes the study of different edges geometry, and examines the sensitivity of the damping and added mass coefficients to the porosity of the plate. A novel porous heave plate based on fractal theory has also been proposed, tested experimentally and compared with experimental data obtained by other authors for plates with similar porosity. A numerical solver of Navier Stokes equations, based on the finite volume technique has been applied. It uses the open-source libraries of OpenFOAM (Open source Field Operation And Manipulation), to solve 2 incompressible, isothermal immiscible fluids using a VOF (volume of fluid) phase-fraction based interface capturing approach, with optional mesh motion and mesh topology changes including adaptive re-meshing. Numerical results have been compared with experiments conducted at Technical University of Madrid (CEHINAV) and CEHIPAR model basins in Madrid and with others performed at School of Mechanical Engineering in The University of Western Australia. A brief summary of main results are presented below: 1. At low KC numbers, a systematic increase in added mass and damping, corresponding to an increase in the seabed proximity, is observed. Specifically, for the cases when the heave plate is oscillating closer to the free surface, the dependence of the hydrodynamic coefficients is strongly influenced by the free surface. 2. As seen in experiments, a critical KC, where the linear trend of the hydrodynamic coefficients with KC is disrupted and that depends on the seabed or free surface distance, has been found. 3. The physical behavior of the flow around the critical KC has been explained through an analysis of the flow vorticity field. 4. The porosity of the heave plates reduces the added mass for the studied porosity at all KC numbers, but the porous heave plates are found to increase the damping coefficient with increasing amplitude of oscillation, achieving a maximum damping coefficient for the heave plate with 10% porosity in the entire KC range. 5. Another concept taken into account in this work has been the heave plates with flaps. Numerical and experimental results show that using discs with flaps will increase added mass when compared to the plain plate but may also significantly reduce damping. 6. A novel heave plate design based on fractal theory has tested experimentally for different submergences and compared with experimental data obtained by other authors for porous plates. Results show an unclear behavior in the coefficients and should be studied further. Future work is necessary in order to address a series of open questions focusing on 3D effects, optimization of the heave plates shapes, etc.

Modelado dinámico y control de maniobras de dispositivos submarinos

Es bien conocido por todos que la Primera Revolución Industrial, que tuvo su inicio en la segunda mitad del Siglo XVIII, conllevó un aumento del uso de los recursos energéticos que no se ha detenido para llegar a los niveles de desarrollo tecnológico, industrial y de calidad de vida, de los que se dispone en la actualidad. A simple vista podría intuirse que para disponer de un mayor nivel tecnológico, industrial, de confort, etc. sea necesario un mayor consumo de energía primaria. La actual generación de energía está principalmente basada en el procesamiento de los diversos compuestos del carbono (hidrocarburos, gases y productos derivados del petróleo), que son contaminantes y además, se agotan. Desde hace unas pocas décadas, la humanidad ha sido consciente que es necesario generar energía a partir de fuentes de origen renovable, y que además resulten menos contaminantes. Así, en la actualidad, se ha llegado a un estado de desarrollo avanzado para la explotación de diversas fuentes de energías como la eólica, a la vez que se comienza a mirar con realismo la posibilidad de explotación de diversas energías de origen marino. Se considera que las energías renovables procedentes de los océanos que se encuentran más desarrolladas tecnológicamente hablando, sin tener en cuenta la energía eólica fuera costa (offshore), son la denominada energía undimotriz o de las olas y la energía de las corrientes marinas, no necesariamente en este orden. El trabajo propuesto en esta Tesis se centra en este último recurso energético y, aunque no se dispone todavía de ningún dispositivo en fase de explotación comercial, la concepción, diseño y desarrollo de dispositivos para la extracción de energía de las corrientes, y su evolución, han sido relativamente rápidos e importantes en estos últimos años. Existen ya diferentes dispositivos en fase de pruebas con resultados muy prometedores. Aunque los dispositivos actuales se encuentran limitados a la explotación energética en zonas de poca profundidad, los diferentes estudios del recurso indican la necesidad de explotar corrientes marinas a mayores profundidades, para lo que se están desarrollando actualmente dispositivos, cuya evolución en lo que a sistemas de fondeo se refiere, está siendo muy parecida a la que se ha producido en los parques eólicos fuera costa, similar a su vez, a la evolución llevada a cabo en las plataformas oceánicas para la explotación de recursos petrolíferos (denominados oil & gas) que se extraen de profundidades cada vez mayores. Las soluciones tecnológicas que resulten válidas han de ser también económicamente viables, y en la actualidad se requiere todavía reducir costos en todas las fases de instalación, explotación y mantenimiento de estos dispositivos, sea cual sea su profundidad de operación. Uno de los focos de estudio para abaratar los costes de explotación en general, pasa por abaratar y reducir los costes en las maniobras necesarias de inmersión (de la superficie del mar a la profundidad de operación) y emersión (de la profundidad de operación a la superficie del mar) de estos dispositivos, para llevar a cabo tareas de mantenimiento in situ, en el mar, y sin necesidad de buques especializados ni de su transporte a tierra. En esta Tesis se propone, en primer lugar, un método para evaluar el ciclo de vida de diversos dispositivos de aprovechamiento de las corrientes marinas. Se evidencia que el coste de la energía así generada sigue siendo no plenamente competitivo, por lo que se requiere avanzar en el abaratamiento de costes, principalmente en la instalación y en su mantenimiento. Para ello se propone como novedad principal, introducir sistemas de control en lazo cerrado para realizar maniobras de instalación y mantenimiento de forma automática. También se aporta un modelo dinámico original y muy sencillo para dispositivos bajo estos movimientos de emersión/inmersión, a partir del cual se han desarrollado los algoritmos de control para el propósito mencionado, que no es otro sino automatizar en todo lo posible las maniobras completas. Los algoritmos de control propuestos han sido validados mediante simulación. Se proponen trayectorias de referencia de movimiento suaves (smooth) similares a las utilizadas en robótica. Estos movimientos de cambios de profundidad en lazo cerrado, combinados con secuencias de movimientos en bucle abierto para cuando el dispositivo interacciona en la superficie libre, han dado lugar a nuevas maniobras completas de instalación y mantenimiento que se presentan en esta Tesis, diferentes a las actuales. Finalmente, y como justificación de la viabilidad económica del método novedoso aportado, se ha realizado un estudio comparativo de los costes de la tecnología propuesta, frente a la tecnología actual. Este nuevo sistema de maniobras automáticas implica un ciclo de vida diferente para los dispositivos de aprovechamiento de la energía de las corrientes, ciclo que se cuantifica a partir de un dispositivo base que ha sido modificado y adaptado para la nueva tecnología propuesta, demostrando su viabilidad tanto técnica como económica. ABSTRACT It’s well known that the First Industrial Revolution started in the second half of the eighteenth century, carried the increasing of the use of energy resource which have not been stopped until reach the present technology, industrial evolution and daily life quality. On the surface, it can be known intuitively that a higher consumption of primary energy resource is demanded for benefiting from a higher technological industrial and daily life level. Today, the generation of energy is mainly based in the processing of carbon products (hydrocarbons, gases and petroleum products) which are pollutants, and additionally, are depleted. From a few decades ago, the humanity is aware the energy should be obtained from renewable resources, which besides, should be cleaner. So, at the present, a technical develop has been gained to exploit several energy source, as wind energy, and, at the same time, the extraction of the marine energy starts to seem as a reality. The renewable marine energies considered more advanced and technically developed, without keeping in mind, the offshore wind energy, are the wave energy and the tidal current energy, not necessarily in that order. This Thesis is focused in this last energy resource, and, although, any device is under commercial operation, the concept, design and develop of this type of devices to extract the tidal current energy and their evolution has been comparatively fast and important the last years. There are several devices under test with promising results. Even through the current devices are limited to lower depth areas, the several studies of the tidal energy resource suggest the need to exploit the marine current at greater depths to what is being developed devices, where their evolution in the anchoring system is being very similar to the evolution performed in the offshore wind farms, which is at the same time, similar to the evolution in the oil and gas exploitation which are extracted to greatest depths. Viable technical solutions should be also viable economically and nowadays the cost in all phases of the project (installation, maintenance and operation) should be decreased whatever the operation depth is. One focus of study to lower the operation cost is the cost decreasing of immersion manoeuvring operations (from sea surface to the operation depth) and immersion manoeuvring operations (from operation depth to the sea surface), therefore the maintenance operations can be performed on – site, in the sea, and no specialized vessels are required to transport the devices from the sea to shore. In this dissertation, firstly is proposed a method to evaluate the life cycle of the tidal energy current devices. It is proved the energy generated by these devices is not fully competitive; therefore, the cost falling is mainly an objective in the installation and the maintenance operations. For that, it is proposed as main novelty, the using of closed loop control systems to perform the automatic installation and manoeuvring operations. It is also contributed with an original and simple dynamic model and for controlling the immersion/emersion movements of these devices, from which the control algorithms are developed in order to automate as much as possible the complete manoeuvring. The control algorithms proposed has been validated by simulations. Reference paths with smooth movements, similar which are used in robotics, are suggested. These movements to change the depth using closed loop control, combined with the sequences in open loop movements when the device is in free surface, have been development for a new complete manoeuvring to installation and maintenance operations which are advanced in this Thesis and they are different to the present manoeuvrings. Finally and as justification of the economic viability of this original method, a comparative cost study between the technology proposed and the current technology is performed. This new automatic manoeuvring system involves a different life cycle for the tidal energy current devices, cycle that is quantified from a base device which has been modified and adapted for the new proposed technology, showing the technical and economic viability.

Design Parameter Analysis of Point Absorber WEC via an Evolutionary-Algorithm-Based Dimensioning Tool

Wave energy conversion has an essential difference from other renewable energies since the dependence between the devices design and the energy resource is stronger. Dimensioning is therefore considered a key stage when a design project of Wave Energy Converters (WEC) is undertaken. Location, WEC concept, Power Take-Off (PTO) type, control strategy and hydrodynamic resonance considerations are some of the critical aspects to take into account to achieve a good performance. The paper proposes an automatic dimensioning methodology to be accomplished at the initial design project stages and the following elements are described to carry out the study: an optimization design algorithm, its objective functions and restrictions, a PTO model, as well as a procedure to evaluate the WEC energy production. After that, a parametric analysis is included considering different combinations of the key parameters previously introduced. A variety of study cases are analysed from the point of view of energy production for different design-parameters and all of them are compared with a reference case. Finally, a discussion is presented based on the results obtained, and some recommendations to face the WEC design stage are given.