Reflections on the sociology of law: A rejection of law as 'socially marginal'

Rejecting the concept of law as subservient to social pathology, the principle aim of this article is to locatc law as a critical matter of social structure - and power - which requires to be considered as a central element in the construction of society and social institutions. As such, this article contends that wider jurisprudential notions such as legal procedure and procedural justice, and juridical power and discretion are cogent, robust normative social concerns (as much as they are legal concerns) that positively require consideration and representation in the ernpifical study of sociological phenomena. Reflecting upon scholarship and research evidence on legal procedure and decision-making, the article attempts to elucidate the inter-relationship between power, 'the social', and the operation of law. It concludes that law is not 'socially marginal' but socially, totally central. (c) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Conserving marginal populations of the foodplant (Impatiens noli-tangere) of an endangered moth (Eustroma reticulatum) in a changing climate

Impatiens noli-tangere is scarce in the UK and probably only native to the Lake District and Wales. It is the sole food plant for the endangered moth Eustroma reticulattum. Significant annual fluctuations in the size of I. noli-tangere populations endanger the continued presence of E. reticulatum in the UK. In this study, variation in population size was monitored across native populations of L noli-tangere in the English Lake District and Wales. In 1998, there was a crash in the population size of all metapopulations in the Lake District but not of those found in Wales. A molecular survey of the genetic affinities of samples in 1999 from both regions and a reference population from Switzerland was performed using AFLP and ISSR analyses. The consensus UPGMA dendrogram and a PCO scatter plot revealed clear differentiation between the populations of L noli-tangere in Wales and those in the Lake District. Most of the genetic variation in the UK (H-T= 0.064) was partitioned between (G(ST) = 0.455) rather than within (H-S = 0.034) regions, inferring little gene flow occurs between regions. There was similar bias towards differentiation between metapopulations in Wales, again consistent with low levels of interpopulation gene flow. This contrasts with far lower levels of differentiation in the Lake District which suggests modest rates of gene flow may occur between populations. It is concluded that in the event of local extinction of sites or populations, reintroductions should be restricted to samples collected from the same region. We then surveyed climatic variables to identify those most likely to cause local extinctions. Climatic correlates of population size were sought from two Lake District metapopulations situated close to a meteorological station. A combination of three climatic variables common to both sites explained 81-84% of the variation in plant number between 1990 and 2001. Projected trends for these climatic variables were used in a Monte Carlo simulation which suggested an increased risk of I. noli-tangere population crashes by 2050 at Coniston Water. but not at Derwentwater. Implications of these findings for practical conservation strategies are explored. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Initiation of deep convection at marginal instability in an ensemble of mesoscale models: a case-study from COPS

The present study investigates the initiation of precipitating deep convection in an ensemble of convection-resolving mesoscale models. Results of eight different model runs from five non-hydrostatic models are compared for a case of the Convective and Orographically-induced Precipitation Study (COPS). An isolated convective cell initiated east of the Black Forest crest in southwest Germany, although convective available potential energy was only moderate and convective inhibition was high. Measurements revealed that, due to the absence of synoptic forcing, convection was initiated by local processes related to the orography. In particular, the lifting by low-level convergence in the planetary boundary layer is assumed to be the dominant process on that day. The models used different configurations as well as different initial and boundary conditions. By comparing the different model performance with each other and with measurements, the processes which need to be well represented to initiate convection at the right place and time are discussed. Besides an accurate specification of the thermodynamic and kinematic fields, the results highlight the role of boundary-layer convergence features for quantitative precipitation forecasts in mountainous terrain.

The marginal benefit of diversification in commercial real estate portfolios

The number of properties to hold to achieve a well-diversified real estate property portfolio presents a puzzle, as the estimated number is considerably higher than that seen in actual portfolios. However, Statman (1987) argues that investors should only increase the number of holdings as long as the marginal benefits of diversification exceed their costs. Using this idea we find that the marginal benefits of diversification in real estate portfolios are so small that investors are probably rational in holding small portfolios, at least as far as the reduction in standard deviation is concerned.

Granular flow in the marginal ice zone

The region of sea ice near the edge of the sea ice pack is known as the marginal ice zone (MIZ), and its dynamics are complicated by ocean wave interaction with the ice cover, strong gradients in the atmosphere and ocean and variations in sea ice rheology. This paper focuses on the role of sea ice rheology in determining the dynamics of the MIZ. Here, sea ice is treated as a granular material with a composite rheology describing collisional ice floe interaction and plastic interaction. The collisional component of sea ice rheology depends upon the granular temperature, a measure of the kinetic energy of flow fluctuations. A simplified model of the MIZ is introduced consisting of the along and across momentum balance of the sea ice and the balance equation of fluctuation kinetic energy. The steady solution of these equations is found to leading order using elementary methods. This reveals a concentrated region of rapid ice flow parallel to the ice edge, which is in accordance with field observations, and previously called the ice jet. Previous explanations of the ice jet relied upon the existence of ocean currents beneath the ice cover. We show that an ice jet results as a natural consequence of the granular nature of sea ice.

Estimação de regressões aditivas via backfitting e integração marginal: performance em pequenas amostras

Nesta dissertação realizou-se um experimento de Monte Carlo para re- velar algumas características das distribuições em amostras finitas dos estimadores Backfitting (B) e de Integração Marginal(MI) para uma regressão aditiva bivariada. Está-se particularmente interessado em fornecer alguma evidência de como os diferentes métodos de seleção da janela hn, tais co- mo os métodos plug-in, impactam as propriedades em pequenas amostras dos estimadores. Está-se interessado, também, em fornecer evidência do comportamento de diferentes estimadores de hn relativamente a seqüência ótima de hn que minimiza uma função perda escolhida. O impacto de ignorar a dependência entre os regressores na estimação da janela é tam- bém investigado. Esta é uma prática comum e deve ter impacto sobre o desempenho dos estimadores. Além disso, não há nenhuma rotina atual- mente disponível nos pacotes estatísticos/econométricos para a estimação de regressões aditivas via os métodos de Backfitting e Integração Marginal. É um dos objetivos a criação de rotinas em Gauss para a implementação prática destes estimadores. Por fim, diferentemente do que ocorre atual- mente, quando a utilização dos estimadores-B e MI é feita de maneira completamente ad-hoc, há o objetivo de fornecer a usuários informação que permita uma escolha mais objetiva de qual estimador usar quando se está trabalhando com uma amostra finita.

A estrutura subjacente ao fenômeno da produtividade marginal percebida em empresas de serviço

Esta pesquisa de dissertação teve como objetivo verificar a estrutura subjacente ao fenômeno da Produtividade Marginal Percebida. O estudo limitou-se ao fenômeno ocorrido em empresas de serviço, que não dispusessem de indicadores quantitativos de produtividade. O arcabouço teórico está fundamentado na literatura disponível sobre Produtividade e Comportamento Organizacional. O método utilizado foi o de pesquisa qualitativa de caráter estruturalista. O objetivo foi investigar a existência de estruturas subjacentes ao fenômeno da Produtividade Marginal Percebida. A coleta das informações ocorreu através de entrevistas semi-estruturadas com chefes de empresas de serviços no município do Rio de Janeiro. Os sujeitos foram definidos através de seleção acidental e limitados pelo critério de saturação. A análise das informações buscou permitir o desenvolvimento de um modelo que explicitasse os elementos constituintes dos esforços para elevar a produtividade do trabalho e suas relações, de forma a poder desvendar a estrutura subjacente ao sistema relacional da produtividade. O caráter desta pesquisa é exploratório, portanto não coloca de antemão hipóteses a serem testadas. Ao final da pesquisa, a interpretação das informações coletados sugeriu que a relação subjacente ao fenômeno aqui objeto de estudo uma relação de Influência Mútua, qualificada como não-sequencial, pois não há ordenação entre os elementos da relação, e segue a lógica da reflexividade. Esta lógica afirma que o fato de observar um fenômeno é suficiente para alterá-lo. O trabalho é concluído com a apresentação de críticas, limitações da pesquisa e sugestão para próximos trabalhos.

O efeito preço das transferências sobre o custo marginal de financiamento público do IPTU para os governos locais no Brasil

O objetivo desse artigo é estimar o efeito-preço das transferências incondicionais, condicionais e da renda para os municípios brasileiros. De acordo com Dahlby (2011) um aumento de transferência lump-sum tem, além do efeito renda, um efeito preço decorrente do uso de impostos distorcivos. Dessa forma, um governo local que recebe uma transferência lump-sum, pode diminuir o custo marginal de financiamento público (MCF) e permanecer com o mesmo nível de serviço. Assim, o efeito gasto das transferências pode ser maior do que o decorrente da renda, explicando o flypaper effect. Usando dados de impostos sobre propriedade (IPTU), primeiramente calculamos o custo marginal de financiamento público (MCF) deste imposto. Em seguida, estimamos se as transferências lump-sum efetivamente diminuem o custo marginal de financiamento público (MCF).

The distribution of average and marginal effective tax rates in European Union member states

Macro-based summary indicators of effective tax burdens do not capture differences in effective tax rates facing different sub-groups of the population. They also cannot provide information on the level or distribution of the marginal effective tax rates thought to influence household behaviour. I use EUROMOD, an EU-wide tax-benefit microsimulation model, to compute distributions of average and marginal effective tax rates across the household population in fourteen European Union Member States. Using different definitions of ‘net taxes’, the tax base and the unit of analysis I present a range of measures showing the contribution of the tax-benefit system to household incomes, the average effective tax rates applicable to income from labour and marginal effective tax rates faced by working men and women. In a second step, effective tax rates are broken down to separately show the influence of each type of tax-benefit instrument. The results show that measures of effective tax rates vary considerably depending on incomes, labour market situations and family circumstances. Using single averages or macro-based indicators will therefore provide an inappropriate picture of tax burdens faced by large parts of the population.

Three applications of the marginal cost of public funds concept

This paper illustrates the use of the marginal cost of public funds concept in three contexts. First, we extend Parry’s (2003) analysis of the efficiency effects excise taxes in the U.K., primarily by incorporating the distortion caused by imperfect competition in the cigarette market and distinguishing between the MCFs for per unit and ad valorem taxes on cigarettes. Our computations show, contrary to the standard result in the literature, that the per unit tax on cigarettes has a slightly lower MCF than the ad valorem tax on cigarettes. Second, we calculate the MCF for a payroll tax in a labour market with involuntary unemployment, using the Shapiro and Stiglitz (1984) efficiency wage model as our framework. Our computations, based on Canadian labour market data, indicate that incorporating the distortion caused by involuntary unemployment raises the MCF by 25 to 50 percent. Third, we derive expressions for the distributionally-weighted MCFs for the exemption level and the marginal tax rate for a “flat tax”, such as the one that has been adopted by the province of Alberta. This allows us to develop a restricted, but tractable, version of the optimal income tax problem. Computations indicate that the optimal marginal tax rate may be quite high, even with relatively modest pro-poor distributional preferences.

The marginal cost of funds from public sector borrowing

An expression for the welfare cost of a marginal increase in the public debt is derived using a simple AK endogenous growth model. This measure of the marginal cost of public funds (MCF) can be interpreted as the marginal benefit-cost ratio that a debtfinanced public project needs in order to generate a net social gain. The model predicts an increase in the public debt ratio will have little effect on the optimal public expenditure ratio and that most of the adjustment will occur on the tax side of the budget.

Bank relationships: effect on the availability and marginal cost of credit for firms in Argentina

The paper provides evidence on what affects at the margin the cost and availability of bank credit for firms in Argentina. We study in particular how banks use different pieces of private and public information to screen firms and overcome informational asymmetries in the credit market. Some private information is transferable, like balance sheet data. Private information generated in relationships is not. To capture the closeness of bank relationships, we resort to the concentration of bank credit and the number of credit lines in a bank. We also consider public information available in the Central de Deudores. The cost of credit is measured using overdrafts, the most expensive line of credit, at the bank that charges the highest rate for overdrafts. We find that the cost of credit is smaller for a firm with a close relationship to the marginal bank. Firms with large assets, a high sales/assets ratio, and a low debt/assets ratio pay a lower interest rate at the margin. A good credit history (no debt arrears and no bounced checks) and collateral also reduce the marginal interest rate. The availability of credit is measured by unused credit lines as a proportion of total liabilities with the main bank. The availability of credit depends positively on a close relationship with the main bank. Large assets, a high return over assets, a high sales/assets ratio, a low debt/assets ratio, a good credit history, and collateral lead to higher credit availability. Our measure of unused credit lines is less ambiguous than traditional measures like leverage, which may indicate financial distress rather than availability of credit.