Sola romani: morteros hidráulicos romanos en la Península Ibérica

En esta investigación se han analizado morteros de cal de cronología romana en el interior de la Península Ibérica. Para ello, se seleccionó una serie de muestras procedentes de diversos yacimientos, y de estructuras de carácter industrial. Estas muestras presentan aditivos cerámicos y conglomerantes de cal, como característica principal. Desde un principio el esfuerzo debía de centrarse en los fragmentos cerámicos presentes en los morteros. Para ello se documentaron varios morteros con aditivos cerámicos, a fin de conocer sus características básicas (componentes, distribución, micro-estratigrafía, granulometría, etc.). Por ello, y una vez tomadas las muestras, ésta fueron tratadas y procesadas para desarrollar una primera fase de estudio por medio de macroscopía. Se obtuvieron buenos resultados en cuanto a la caracterización visual de los morteros, localizando y documentando los fragmentos cerámicos. Durante la observación de dichos aditivos se observó que los fragmentos cerámicos tenían unas coronas o anillos de coloración que recorrían el borde, justo al contacto con la matriz de cal. Fueron seleccionados algunos fragmentos en los que eran más visibles dichos anillos. A fin de conocer la posible relación entre algunos yacimientos cercanos y la presencia de dicho anillo cromáticos se desarrolló una microscopía óptica polarizada, realizando láminas delgadas de las muestras y sobre los fragmentos cerámicos más determinantes, en concreto de una serie de enclaves del valle del Henares. Además de caracterizar microscópicamente los morteros, se observó que los anillos no eran un defecto visual ni una alteración física, producida tal vez por la extracción, la fase del corte o por la cocción de la cerámica. Tras analizar varios ejemplares se pudo apreciar que esos anillos eran habituales en todas las muestras y que se presentaban de diferente manera, es decir, que se observaban en granos cerámicos de diferentes características físicas (cochura, tamaño, situación con respecto del conglomerante, etc.). A fin de conocer los aspectos químicos de dicha alteración se seleccionó un grupo de muestras en las que los resultados macroscópicos habían sido muy claros, y en las que la microscopía óptica polarizada había determinado en los bordes, áreas adecuadas para otros análisis. Se realizó un mapeado o mapping de elementos químicos, a fin de saber qué podía estar sucediendo en esa interfaz entre el fragmento cerámico y la matriz de cal. Gracias a los resultados obtenidos se comprobó que existía una acumulación potencial de calcio tanto en el interior de los granos cerámicos como en el exterior, justo en la zona de contacto con el conglomerante, formando manchas que recorrían longitudinalmente el borde. Estos datos fueron muy útiles para llevar a cabo la siguiente fase de estudio, que permitiría conocer puntualmente qué estaba sucediendo químicamente en esa zona de contacto. Finalmente y con el objetivo de describir química y puntualmente este efecto en las adiciones cerámicas, se volvió a seleccionar una serie de muestras, escogidas esta vez en función de los granos cerámicos que cumpliesen unas variables estadísticas. Se eligieron granos con distintos tipos de cocciones, así como granos con tamaños diversos y granos con aditivo ceniciento en la matriz de cal, pensando que podrían ser las variables más útiles de interpretar de existir algún tipo de cambio químico entre la arcilla cocida y la matriz de cal. Tales variables se adaptaron a un sistema estadístico multi-varial y geométrico, con el objetivo de sintetizar los resultados y visualizar de forma óptima los datos en conjunto, como se ha comentado en varias ocasiones en este trabajo. Una vez seleccionados los granos por variables se procedió a realizar un análisis lineal y espectral semi-cuantitativo de SEM-EDX, con el que se caracterizaba químicamente una sección lineal del grano, desde la matriz de arcilla cocida de la cerámica hasta la matriz de cal –del interior al exterior del grano- pasando por el centro de la banda de reacción. Este análisis permitió determinar que se había producido una serie de cambios químicos porcentuales en los granos de cerámica. Dichos cambios se resumen en un incremento global de los porcentajes de calcio en el interior de las bandas de reacción de la cerámica, desde el borde mismo del anillo hasta el exterior. Así también se observaron picos porcentuales en el interfaz del fragmento cerámico con la matriz de cal, lo que confirmaba los resultados obtenidos por medio del mapping. Globalmente en todas las muestras se apreció un hombro en las gráficas de calcio a su paso por la zona de afección del anillo de reacción. Los restantes porcentajes de magnesio, silicio y aluminio se mantienen normales. En esta tesis se ha confirmado que dicho incremento global de calcio se acentúa en las muestras en donde no hay cenizas en la matriz de cal. Los casos correspondientes a estos granos sufren un incremento mayor que en el resto. La segunda variable que sufre un mayor incremento de calcio es la que corresponde a granos con buena cocción de la arcilla. Por lo tanto, parece que la tercera variable, la que corresponde con el tamaño del fragmento cerámico, no es decisiva. Por lo tanto, teniendo en cuenta la prueba visual de los anillos de reacción, y atendiendo a los resultados químicos, podríamos pensar que ese incremento de calcio en la banda de reacción de los fragmentos cerámicos se debió a una absorción de calcio en el interior de la arcilla cocida en la fase inmediatamente previa al fraguado, incluso durante el apagado de la cal. Es en este punto donde estaría la clave del cambio químico que se produce en esta interfaz, el calcio sílice-aluminato del que algunos autores ya han investigado. Esta absorción de calcio en el interior del grano no vendría sola, sino que generaría una costra de cal en el interfaz exterior de la cerámica, la cual ha sido observada químicamente por mapping y mineralógicamente por medio de microscopía óptica de polarización. La consecuencia de estos resultados es, primero, la mejora de nuestro conocimiento general acerca del factor hidráulico en los morteros. Asimismo se aprecia que la incorporación de materiales orgánicos como cenizas, puede alterar los porcentajes de calcio en el interior de los aditivos cerámicos, por lo que habría que sopesar, en trabajos futuros, si este tipo de material es adecuado o no en las mezclas destinadas a la restauración, así como seguir indagando en las propiedades de los morteros con la incorporación de aditivos orgánicos. Desde el punto de vista de la catalogación de los suelos industriales hidráulicos de época romana, además de mejorar la documentación incorporando micro-estratigrafías y granulometrías, la investigación de este material histórico constructivo mejora en cuanto a que se incorporan ensayos sencillos, que facilitan incluso la peritación de un estado de conservación por medio de una lupa binocular. Arqueológicamente hablando, es muy interesante correlacionar fábricas diferentes de estructuras situadas o bien en un mismo yacimiento, o bien en una misma área regional. Los estudios de caracterización y micro-estratigrafía no sólo aportan datos nuevos de cara a la restauración de morteros, sino que crean la posibilidad de generar patrones constructivos que sirvan de fósiles-guía para datar relativamente a unas estructuras o a otras. En lo referido a los resultados obtenidos en los diferentes complejos arqueológicos se ha observado una diferencia entre los morteros destinados a piletas y cubetas con respecto a los suelos industriales de uso indeterminado. La muestra correspondiente al yacimiento de Las Arenas no dispone de ninguna micro-estratigrafía, como sí por el contrario en las muestras obtenidas en Rotonda de Mejorada, Val de la Viña y La Magdalena. En estos enclaves las estructuras presentan grandes similitudes, con diferentes niveles constructivos empleando morteros de cal con áridos y gravas en las capas interiores, y áridos con adiciones cerámicas en las exteriores. En lo relativo a la granulometría las adiciones cerámicas de las muestras de Val de la Viña y La Magdalena presentan varias coincidencias en cuanto al tamaño de los granos y la distribución. Asimismo, de las muestras tomadas en La Magdalena, existe una gran diferencia entre las muestras MG1, MG2, MG3 y MG4 con respecto a las muestras MG5 y MG6, correspondientes éstas últimas a un mortero con fragmentos cerámicos de gran tamaño. Las estructuras EMG1 y EMG2, correspondientes a una cubeta y una pileta de La Magdalena, guardan similitud en lo referido a la micro-estratigrafía y a la granulometría. Se ha determinado que su función, así como su fabricación, debieron estar vinculadas a un mismo contexto cronocultural. Química y mineralógicamente, las muestras presentan características iguales, con presencia de un conglomerante de cal con áridos y aditivos cerámicos de diferentes cochuras. Destaca la muestra de Las Arenas, con un tamaño de los fragmentos cerámicos muy superior al resto, seguido de la estructura EMG3 de La Magdalena. Las muestras restantes de éste enclave, junto con las muestras recogidas en Val de la Viña y Rotonda de Mejorada presentan condiciones similares. En conclusión, los datos revelan que existían diferentes fábricas destinadas a distintas finalidades, y que las estructuras industriales empleaban aditivos cerámicos para la manipulación de productos con líquidos, de distintas densidades pero que requerían de cierto grado de hidraulicidad. ABSTRACT Lime Roman mortars from the Iberian Peninsula has been analyzed in this reesearch. A group of samples were selected from some sites and all the samples come from industrial structures. All this samples show ceramic additives. From the start, the effort was centered in the pieces of pottery that were found in the mortars. The samples were treated and processed to develop a first phase of the research using macroscopy. With this technique, great results were achieved in the characterization of mortars, the microstratigraphy and the location of the ceramic pieces. While observing these pieces, it was seen that the fragments of pottery had a ring bordering the piece. The pieces with the bigger and more vivid rings were chosen and they were analyzed by a polarized light microscope. The mortars were characterized microscopically and it also showed that the rings were not a physical alteration or a visual defect. After some more tests, the rings were a chemical change associated with the hydraulicity of the mortar. The best samples were selected and mappings of their chemical elements were performed in order to know what could be happening in the interface between the ceramic matrix fragment and lime. With the results obtained it was found that there was a potential; both calcium accumulation within the ceramic grains and outside, just in the area of contact with the binder, forming spots longitudinally along the edge. These data were very useful for carrying out the next phase of study, which would meet promptly what was happening chemically in the area of contact. Another group of samples were taken, and this time focused on ceramic grains that met a statistical variables. Grains were chosen with two types of cooking as well as grains with different sizes and grains with ash additive in the matrix of lime, thinking that might be the most logical to be some sort of chemical change between the baked clay and lime array variables . Such variables were adapted to a multi-varial and geometric statistical system in order to synthesize the results and optimally display the data together, as mentioned several times in this work. After selecting the variables grains proceeded to perform a linear and spectral analysis SEM-EDX. This analysis led to determine that the chemical changes were graduals. These changes are summarized in an increase in the percentages of calcium inside the reaction rim of ceramics, from the edge to the outer ring. So percentage increasing is also observed at the interface of the ceramic matrix fragment with lime, confirming the results obtained by the mapping. Overall in all samples can be seen a shoulder in graphic calcium through the area of the ring reaction condition. The remaining percentages of magnesium, silicon and aluminum are usual. We have promptly confirmed that the increase of calcium is accentuated in samples where there is no ash and lime matrix. Cases for these grains suffer a greater increase than the rest. The second variable suffering more calcium is increased corresponding to good cooking grains with clay. Therefore, it appears that the variable size of the fragment is not critical. Therefore, considering the visual tests to the rings and their response to chemical results, we might think that increasing calcium inside the ceramic fragments was due to an injection of calcium inside clay in the run-up to the setting phase. It is at this point that would be the key to the chemical change that occurs at this interface, silica-calcium aluminate some authors have already investigated. This injection of calcium into the grain does not come alone, but generate a lime crust on the outside interface of ceramics, which we tested for mapping is real in our samples. The consequence of these results is the improvement of our understanding of historical hydraulic factor in building materials, such as mortar. For example, knowing that the incorporation of organic materials such as ash powder, may be detrimental to the injection of calcium inside the ceramic additives. Archaeologically speaking, it's very interesting to correlate different factories or structures located on a single site, or in the same regional area. Characterization studies and microstratigraphy not only provide new information to help restore mortars, but create the possibility of generating constructive patterns that serve as guide fossils to determinate the age of the structures. With regard to the results obtained in different archaeological sites it has seen a difference between mortars of pools or sinks with respect to industrial floors of undetermined use. The sample of the site of Las Arenas does not have any micro-stratigraphy, as if instead in the samples obtained in Rotonda de Mejorada, Val de la Viña and La Magdalena sites. In these settlements the structures are really similar, with different construction levels using lime mortars with aggregates and gravel in the inner layers, and ceramic aggregates as external additions. With regard to the grain size of the ceramic additions Val de la Viña and La Magdalena samples has several coincidences about the size of grains and distribution. Also, samples taken at La Magdalena, there is a difference between the MG1, MG2, MG3 and MG4 samples and the MG5 and MG6 samples, so the last corresponding to a mortar samples with larger ceramic fragments. The EMG1 and EMG2 structures, corresponding to a bucket and a pool of La Magdalena settlement, have similarities with regard to micro-stratigraphy and grain size. It has been determined that the function and manufacturing must be linked with a same chronocultural context.

A logical analysis of T cell activation and anergy

Interaction of the antigen-specific receptor of T lymphocytes with its antigenic ligand can lead either to cell activation or to a state of profound unresponsiveness (anergy). Although subtle changes in the nature of the ligand or of the antigen-presenting cell have been shown to affect the outcome of T cell receptor ligation, the mechanism by which the same receptor can induce alternative cellular responses is not completely understood. A model for explaining both positive (cell proliferation and cytokine production) and negative (anergy induction) signaling of T lymphocytes is described herein. This model relies on the autophosphorylative properties of the tyrosine kinases associated with the T cell receptor. One of its basic assumptions is that the kinase activity of these receptor-associated enzymes remains above background level after ligand removal and is responsible for cellular unresponsiveness. Using a simple Boolean formalism, we show how the timing of the binding and intracellular signal-transduction events can affect the properties of receptor signaling and determine the type of cellular response. The present approach integrates into a common framework a large body of experimental observations and allows specification of conditions leading to cellular activation or to anergy.

Cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis hypersusceptibility as a consequence of Lck deficiency in nontransformed T lymphocytes

By using antisense RNA, Lck-deficient transfectants of a T helper 2 (Th2) clone have been derived and shown to have a qualitative defect in the T cell receptor signaling pathway. A striking feature observed only in Lck-deficient T cells was the presence of a constitutively tyrosine-phosphorylated 32-kDa protein. In the present study, we provide evidence that this aberrantly hyperphosphorylated protein is p34cdc2 (cdc2) a key regulator of cell-cycle progression. Lck-deficient transfectants expressed high levels of cdc2 protein and its regulatory units, cyclins A and B. The majority of cdc2, however, was tyrosine-phosphorylated and therefore enzymatically inactive. The transfectants were significantly larger than the parental cells and contained 4N DNA. These results establish that a deficiency in Lck leads to a cell-cycle arrest in G2. Moreover, transfected cells were hypersusceptible to apoptosis when activated through the T cell receptor. Importantly, however, this hypersusceptibility was largely reversed in the presence of T cell growth factors. These findings provide evidence that, in mature T lymphocytes, cell-cycle progression through the G2–M check point requires expression of the Src-family protein tyrosine kinase, Lck. This requirement is Lck-specific; it is observed under conditions in which the closely related Fyn kinase is expressed normally, evincing against a redundancy of function between these two kinases.

Self-antigen does not accelerate immature B cell apoptosis, but stimulates receptor editing as a consequence of developmental arrest

In pre-B lymphocytes, productive rearrangement of Ig light chain genes allows assembly of the B cell receptor (BCR), which selectively promotes further developmental maturation through poorly defined transmembrane signaling events. Using a novel in vitro system to study immune tolerance during development, we find that BCR reactivity to auto-antigen blocks this positive selection, preventing down-regulation of light chain gene recombination and promoting secondary light chain gene rearrangements that often alter BCR specificity, a process called receptor editing. Under these experimental conditions, self-antigen induces secondary light chain gene rearrangements in at least two-thirds of autoreactive immature B cells, but fails to accelerate cell death at this stage. These data suggest that in these cells the mechanism of immune tolerance is receptor selection rather than clonal selection.

Accelerated evolution as a consequence of transitions to mutualism

Differential rates of nucleotide substitutions among taxa are a common observation in molecular phylogenetic studies, yet links between rates of DNA evolution and traits or behaviors of organisms have proved elusive. Likelihood ratio testing is used here for the first time to evaluate specific hypotheses that account for the induction of shifts in rates of DNA evolution. A molecular phylogenetic investigation of mutualist (lichen-forming fungi and fungi associated with liverworts) and nonmutualist fungi revealed four independent transitions to mutualism. We demonstrate a highly significant association between mutualism and increased rates of nucleotide substitutions in nuclear ribosomal DNA, and we demonstrate that a transition to mutualism preceded the rate acceleration of nuclear ribosomal DNA in these lineages. Our results suggest that the increased rate of evolution after the adoption of a mutualist lifestyle is generalized across the genome of these mutualist fungi.

Cells that register logical relationships among proteins

Two-hybrid methods have augmented the classical genetic techniques biologists use to assign function to genes. Here, we describe construction of a two-bait interaction trap that uses yeast cells to register more complex protein relationships than those detected in existing two-hybrid systems. We show that such cells can identify bridge or connecting proteins and peptide aptamers that discriminate between closely related allelic variants. The protein relationships detected by these cells are analogous to classical genetic relationships, but lend themselves to systematic application to the products of entire genomes and combinatorial libraries. We show that, by performing logical operations on the phenotypic outputs of these complex cells and existing two-hybrid cells, we can make inferences about the topology and order of protein interactions. Finally, we show that cells that register such relationships can perform logical operations on protein inputs. Thus these cells will be useful for analysis of gene and allele function, and may also define a path for construction of biological computational devices.

Perturbation of the Nucleus: A Novel Hog1p-independent, Pkc1p-dependent Consequence of Hypertonic Shock in Yeast

Hypertonic shock of Saccharomyces cerevisiae activates the Hog1p MAP kinase cascade. In contrast, protein kinase C (Pkc1p) and the “cell integrity” MAP kinase cascade are critical for the response to hypotonic shock. We observed that hypertonic shock transiently relocated many, but not all, nuclear and nucleolar proteins to the cytoplasm. We hypothesized that the relocation of nuclear proteins was due to activation of the Hog1p kinase cascade, yet, surprisingly, Hog1p was not required for these effects. In contrast, Pkc1p kinase activity was required, although the Pkc1p MAP kinase cascade and several factors known to lie upstream and downstream of Pkc1p were not. Moreover, sudden induction of a hyperactive form of Pkc1p was sufficient to relocate nuclear proteins. Taken together, these observations show that the scope of involvement of Pkc1p in the organization of the nucleus considerably exceeds what has been characterized previously. The relocation of nuclear proteins is likely to account for the profound inhibition of RNA synthesis that was observed during hypertonic shock.

Modelling logical expressions exercises

Exercises of application of the systematic procedure to derive linear inequalities for logic expressions (Ejercicios de aplicación del método sistemático de obtención de restricciones lineales para expresiones lógicas).

Logical Modeling and Dynamical Analysis of Cellular Networks

The logical (or logic) formalism is increasingly used to model regulatory and signaling networks. Complementing these applications, several groups contributed various methods and tools to support the definition and analysis of logical models. After an introduction to the logical modeling framework and to several of its variants, we review here a number of recent methodological advances to ease the analysis of large and intricate networks. In particular, we survey approaches to determine model attractors and their reachability properties, to assess the dynamical impact of variations of external signals, and to consistently reduce large models. To illustrate these developments, we further consider several published logical models for two important biological processes, namely the differentiation of T helper cells and the control of mammalian cell cycle.

Social decision-making for high consequence, low probability occurences /

Oct. 1978.

Proposed land legislation for states and nation especially published in the interest of every man and woman interested in the home : a logical remedy for the "Bread Basket" speculator and unscrupulous real estate operators based on economy, efficiency, justice for humanity /

Mode of access: Internet.

Comparison of the implicit enumeration method and the branch-and-bound method for logical design

Bibliography: p. 91-94.

A study of the effect of additional inequalities in integer programming for logical design.

Originally presented as the author's thesis (M.S.), University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Arithmetic unit of Illiac III: simulation and logical design, part II,

Pt 1, by Daniel E. Atkins, issued as File no. 713 of the University of Illinois Dept. of Computer Science in 1966.