Controle de vibração em reatores elétricos através de absorvedores dinâmicos viscoelásticos

Reatores elétricos utilizados em subestações de energia têm funções específicas na operacionalização e manutenção da funcionalidade destas instalações, sendo equipamentos aplicados ao controle de reativos, de correntes de curto circuito e surtos de manobra em sistemas de transmissão de energia elétrica. Detectou-se que alguns reatores em funcionamento apresentaram elevados níveis de vibração estrutural. Dois destes reatores operam na subestação da cidade de Rurópolis, situada a oeste do estado do Pará. Outro problema decorrente do elevado nível de vibração destas estruturas é a geração de pontos quentes no núcleo eletromagnético do reator, podendo gerar bolhas de gases altamente inflamáveis. A existência destes problemas operacionais pode ocasionar ao Sistema de Transmissão do Norte do Brasil interrupções na transmissão de energia elétrica. Isto geraria na região Norte e em outras interligadas (Nordeste, Sudeste e Centro-Oeste) elevados prejuízos sociais e financeiros. A aplicação de ferramentas para a minimização do problema vibro-acústico (redução dos níveis vibração e, por conseguinte, ruído) pode evitar danos estruturais e operacionais que resultem na sua indisponibilidade operativa reduzindo, conseqüentemente, perdas e a necessidade do desenvolvimento de equipamentos de custo elevado com baixos índices de vibração. No intuito de se reduzir tais níveis, propõe-se à aplicação de absorvedores dinâmicos na estrutura externa dos reatores. Uma vez dimensionados em quantidade, posição e parâmetros definidores (massa, rigidez e amortecimento) espera-se criar um sistema, que sintonizado com a freqüência da excitação de natureza eletromagnética, absorverá parte da energia vibratória do reator, minimizando-se, os elevados índices detectados e, por conseqüência, todos os problemas subseqüentes. São indicados compostos viscoelásticos nos absorvedores dinâmicos (com propriedades dinâmicas dependentes tanto da temperatura como da freqüência de trabalho), em virtude de estes materiais aumentarem o campo de ação dos absorvedores, adequando-se à elevada densidade modal verificada nas chaparias metálicas do reator.

Análise eletromagnética de cabos OPGW utilizando métodos numérico e analítico

Este trabalho apresenta o estudo eletromagnético de cabos OPGW (Optical Ground Wire) os quais têm dupla função: de pára-raios para linhas de transmissão de alta tensão e de canal de comunicação através de fibras ópticas embutidas na estrutura do cabo. Descargas atmosféricas ou curtos-circuitos podem comprometer a integridade do cabo, devido ao aquecimento nas regiões onde há maior concentração de corrente. Para a análise deste problema foram feitos cálculos eletromagnéticos relacionando-os aos efeitos térmicos no cabo. Nesta análise foram consideradas três diferentes geometrias: o modelo de cabo real, o modelo de cabo com camadas homogêneas e o modelo de cabo com uma camada modificada; esta modificação está relacionada à forma geométrica dos fios da armação do cabo. As ferramentas utilizadas em tal estudo foram o software comercial FEMLAB Multiphysics, baseado no método dos elementos finitos, e um método analítico desenvolvido a partir das equações de Maxwell no domínio da freqüência, que foi implementado utilizando o software MATLAB. Os principais resultados deste trabalho são gráficos de distribuição de densidade de corrente na seção reta do cabo para diferentes freqüências, estudo do efeito pelicular e do efeito de proximidade entre os condutores do cabo.

Influência de sistemas meteorológicos de grande escala sobre a distribuição de raios na Amazônia Oriental, com aplicação no setor elétrico

Foi feito um estudo da associação entre a densidade de ocorrência de raios com condições meteorológicas no leste da região Amazônica entre os anos de 2006 a 2008. A região estudada foi limitada por uma grade geográfica entre as latitudes 0º a -10º e longitudes -53º a -43º. Foram desenvolvidos métodos computacionais de processamento estatístico e geração de mapas de ocorrências de raios para diferentes intervalos de tempo. Esses métodos foram aplicados para determinar os pontos de altas ocorrências de raios ao longo de linhas de transmissão de energia elétrica, a fim de oferecer subsídios para a proteção e operação dos sistemas elétricos da região. Foram utilizados dados da rede de detecção de raios do SIPAM para redimensionar a detecção do sistema de alcance intercontinental STARNET, e subsequentemente, foram obtidos mapas de densidade de raios mais uniformes e realistas. Esses mapas foram interpretados em períodos semanais e sazonais, considerando as observações simultâneas de chuva, vento, radiação de onda longa e a presença de sistemas meteorológicos de grande escala. Zona de Convergência Intertropical e Zona de Convergência do Atlântico Sul (ZCIT, ZCAS) definidos pela convergência de ventos e anomalias negativas de Radiação de Ondas Longas ( ROL). Os resultados mostraram boa correspondência entre as áreas de convecção e a intensa ocorrência de raios. Nas regiões de mais alta atividade elétrica atmosférica, foi observada ocorrência de convergência dos ventos e anomalias negativas de ROL, para situações de presença de ZCAS e ZCIT sobre a região. A atividade de raios também coincidiu, com algumas exceções, com áreas de maior precipitação em períodos semanais. Foi observado também que, durante um trimestre seco, os segmentos de linhas de transmissão de Mojú-Tailândia e Jacundá-Marabá apresentaram maior incidência de raios. O pico da densidade de raios chegou a 18 raios/km²/trimestre em alguns locais. Durante o trimestre chuvoso, a densidade geral de raios foi 86% maior e apresentou distribuição espacial mais uniforme quando comparada com um trimestre seco. Este estudo mostrou não somente como as características meteorológicas influenciaram na distribuição e quantidade raios, mas também que a elevada atividade de descargas elétricas na região deve ser uma preocupação importante para os sistemas de distribuição de energia elétrica e outras atividades humanas na Amazônia Oriental.

Multistage Transmission Expansion Planning Considering Fixed Series Compensation Allocation

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Developing an optimization tool for evaluating the transmission system expansion

The transmission system is responsible for connecting the power generators to consumers safely and reliably, its constant expansion is necessary to transport increasing amounts of electricity. In order to help the power systems engineers, an optimization tool for optimize the expansion of the transmission system was developed using the modeling method of the linearized load flow and genetic. This tool was designed to simulate the impact of different scenarios on the cost of transmission expansion. The proposed tool was used to simulate the effects of the presence of distributed generation in the expansion of a fictitious transmission system, where it was found a clear downward trend in investment required for the expansion of the transmission system taking account of increasing levels of distributed generation.

Transmission network expansion planning considering repowering and reconfiguration

Transmission expansion planning (TEP) is a classic problem in electric power systems. In current optimization models used to approach the TEP problem, new transmission lines and two-winding transformers are commonly used as the only candidate solutions. However, in practice, planners have resorted to non-conventional solutions such as network reconfiguration and/or repowering of existing network assets (lines or transformers). These types of non-conventional solutions are currently not included in the classic mathematical models of the TEP problem. This paper presents the modeling of necessary equations, using linear expressions, in order to include non-conventional candidate solutions in the disjunctive linear model of the TEP problem. The resulting model is a mixed integer linear programming problem, which guarantees convergence to the optimal solution by means of available classical optimization tools. The proposed model is implemented in the AMPL modeling language and is solved using CPLEX optimizer. The Garver test system, IEEE 24-busbar system, and a Colombian system are used to demonstrate that the utilization of non-conventional candidate solutions can reduce investment costs of the TEP problem. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Reducing the spurious oscillations in the lumped parameters model using low-pass filter

Voltages and currents in the transmission line are described by differential equations that are difficult to solve due soil and skin effect that has to be considered for accurate results, but it increases their complexity. Therefore there are some models to study the voltages and currents along in transmission line. The distributed parameters model that transforms the equations in time domain to the frequency domain and once the solutions are obtained, they are converted to time domain using the Inverse Laplace Transform using numerical methods. Another model is named lumped parameters model and it considers the transmission line represented by a pi-circuit cascade and the currents and voltages are described by state equations. In the simulations using the lumped parameters model, it can be observed the presence of spurious oscillations that are independent of the quantity of pi-circuits used and do not represent the real value of the transient. In this work will be projected a passive low-pass filter directly inserted in the lumped parameters model to reduce the spurious oscillations in the simulations, making this model more accurate and reliable for studying the electromagnetic transients in power systems.

Tap-Off Power From the Overhead Shield Wires of an HV Transmission Line

In recent years, there was an increase of ancillary service loads, such as signaling systems, inspection robots, surveillance cameras, and other monitoring devices distributed along high-voltage transmission lines which require low-power dc voltage supplies. This paper investigates the use of the induced voltage in the shield wires of an overhead 525 kV transmission line as a primary power source. Since phase current variations throughout the day affect the induced voltage in the overhead ground wire, a step-down dc-dc converter is used after rectification of the ac voltage to provide a regulated dc output voltage. The initial encouraging results obtained indicate that this form of power supply can be a feasible and cost-effective alternative for feeding small ancillary service loads. The simulation results are validated by field measurements as well as the installation of a 200 W voltage stabilization system prototype.

Reduced-order modelling, circuit-level design and SOI fabrication of microelectromechanical resonators

This thesis deals with two important research aspects concerning radio frequency (RF) microresonators and switches. First, a new approach for compact modeling and simulation of these devices is presented. Then, a combined process flow for their simultaneous fabrication on a SOI substrate is proposed. Compact models for microresonators and switches are extracted by applying mathematical model order reduction (MOR) to the devices finite element (FE) description in ANSYS c° . The behaviour of these devices includes forms of nonlinearities. However, an approximation in the creation of the FE model is introduced, which enables the use of linear model order reduction. Microresonators are modeled with the introduction of transducer elements, which allow for direct coupling of the electrical and mechanical domain. The coupled system element matrices are linearized around an operating point and reduced. The resulting macromodel is valid for small signal analysis around the bias point, such as harmonic pre-stressed analysis. This is extremely useful for characterizing the frequency response of resonators. Compact modelling of switches preserves the nonlinearity of the device behaviour. Nonlinear reduced order models are obtained by reducing the number of nonlinearities in the system and handling them as input to the system. In this way, the system can be reduced using linear MOR techniques and nonlinearities are introduced directly in the reduced order model. The reduction of the number of system nonlinearities implies the approximation of all distributed forces in the model with lumped forces. Both for microresonators and switches, a procedure for matrices extraction has been developed so that reduced order models include the effects of electrical and mechanical pre-stress. The extraction process is fast and can be done automatically from ANSYS binary files. The method has been applied for the simulation of several devices both at devices and circuit level. Simulation results have been compared with full model simulations, and, when available, experimental data. Reduced order models have proven to conserve the accuracy of finite element method and to give a good description of the overall device behaviour, despite the introduced approximations. In addition, simulation is very fast, both at device and circuit level. A combined process-flow for the integrated fabrication of microresonators and switches has been defined. For this purpose, two processes that are optimized for the independent fabrication of these devices are merged. The major advantage of this process is the possibility to create on-chip circuit blocks that include both microresonators and switches. An application is, for example, aswitched filter bank for wireless transceiver. The process for microresonators fabrication is characterized by the use of silicon on insulator (SOI) wafers and on a deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) step for the creation of the vibrating structures in single-crystal silicon and the use of a sacrificial oxide layer for the definition of resonator to electrode distance. The fabrication of switches is characterized by the use of two different conductive layers for the definition of the actuation electrodes and by the use of a photoresist as a sacrificial layer for the creation of the suspended structure. Both processes have a gold electroplating step, for the creation of the resonators electrodes, transmission lines and suspended structures. The combined process flow is designed such that it conserves the basic properties of the original processes. Neither the performance of the resonators nor the performance of the switches results affected by the simultaneous fabrication. Moreover, common fabrication steps are shared, which allows for cheaper and faster fabrication.

Modelling and Control of Stepper Motors for High Accuracy Positioning Systems Used in Radioactive Environments

Hybrid Stepper Motors are widely used in open-loop position applications. They are the choice of actuation for the collimators in the Large Hadron Collider, the largest particle accelerator at CERN. In this case the positioning requirements and the highly radioactive operating environment are unique. The latter forces both the use of long cables to connect the motors to the drives which act as transmission lines and also prevents the use of standard position sensors. However, reliable and precise operation of the collimators is critical for the machine, requiring the prevention of step loss in the motors and maintenance to be foreseen in case of mechanical degradation. In order to make the above possible, an approach is proposed for the application of an Extended Kalman Filter to a sensorless stepper motor drive, when the motor is separated from its drive by long cables. When the long cables and high frequency pulse width modulated control voltage signals are used together, the electrical signals difer greatly between the motor and drive-side of the cable. Since in the considered case only drive-side data is available, it is therefore necessary to estimate the motor-side signals. Modelling the entire cable and motor system in an Extended Kalman Filter is too computationally intensive for standard embedded real-time platforms. It is, in consequence, proposed to divide the problem into an Extended Kalman Filter, based only on the motor model, and separated motor-side signal estimators, the combination of which is less demanding computationally. The efectiveness of this approach is shown in simulation. Then its validity is experimentally demonstrated via implementation in a DSP based drive. A testbench to test its performance when driving an axis of a Large Hadron Collider collimator is presented along with the results achieved. It is shown that the proposed method is capable of achieving position and load torque estimates which allow step loss to be detected and mechanical degradation to be evaluated without the need for physical sensors. These estimation algorithms often require a precise model of the motor, but the standard electrical model used for hybrid stepper motors is limited when currents, which are high enough to produce saturation of the magnetic circuit, are present. New model extensions are proposed in order to have a more precise model of the motor independently of the current level, whilst maintaining a low computational cost. It is shown that a significant improvement in the model It is achieved with these extensions, and their computational performance is compared to study the cost of model improvement versus computation cost. The applicability of the proposed model extensions is demonstrated via their use in an Extended Kalman Filter running in real-time for closed-loop current control and mechanical state estimation. An additional problem arises from the use of stepper motors. The mechanics of the collimators can wear due to the abrupt motion and torque profiles that are applied by them when used in the standard way, i.e. stepping in open-loop. Closed-loop position control, more specifically Field Oriented Control, would allow smoother profiles, more respectful to the mechanics, to be applied but requires position feedback. As mentioned already, the use of sensors in radioactive environments is very limited for reliability reasons. Sensorless control is a known option but when the speed is very low or zero, as is the case most of the time for the motors used in the LHC collimator, the loss of observability prevents its use. In order to allow the use of position sensors without reducing the long term reliability of the whole system, the possibility to switch from closed to open loop is proposed and validated, allowing the use of closed-loop control when the position sensors function correctly and open-loop when there is a sensor failure. A different approach to deal with the switched drive working with long cables is also presented. Switched mode stepper motor drives tend to have poor performance or even fail completely when the motor is fed through a long cable due to the high oscillations in the drive-side current. The design of a stepper motor output fillter which solves this problem is thus proposed. A two stage filter, one devoted to dealing with the diferential mode and the other with the common mode, is designed and validated experimentally. With this ?lter the drive performance is greatly improved, achieving a positioning repeatability even better than with the drive working without a long cable, the radiated emissions are reduced and the overvoltages at the motor terminals are eliminated.

Análisis paramétrico de transiciones a bocinas

Las transiciones en guía de onda son las estructuras utilizadas en microondas para transferir y adaptar la señal que viaja en un determinado sistema de transmisión (por ejemplo, un cable coaxial) a otro sistema de transmisión o a un sistema radiante (por ejemplo, una antena de bocina). Los dos sistemas de transmisión entre los que la transición adapta la señal pueden ser distintos o del mismo tipo pero con alguna de sus dimensiones diferente. Existen diferentes transiciones de guía de onda que dependiendo de su utilidad son diseñadas y construidas con diferentes secciones: circular, rectangular, elíptica o incluso combinaciones de éstas. No es necesario que la sección de la guía presente una forma geométrica conocida pero los estándares que se van a seguir hacen referencia en concreto a secciones rectangulares y circulares. En el trabajo que aquí se desarrolla se pretende optimizar por medio de simulaciones paramétricas una transición entre cable coaxial con conector tipo K y una guía de onda de sección circular que sigue el estándar presentado por Flann, Millitech y Antarfs para la banda WR34. La transición que va a ser objeto de este estudio se denomina transición tapered o transición conformada. Este tipo de transiciones se caracterizan por variar una de sus dimensiones progresivamente hasta llegar al tamaño definido en el estándar correspondiente. La manera de realizar la optimización de la transición se basará en el estudio del parámetro S11 que presente la estructura a lo largo de la banda de trabajo. Ya que se sigue el estándar WR34 la banda de trabajo que éste comprende va de 21,7 a 33 GHz. Se pretende conseguir que la respuesta del parámetro S11 se encuentre por debajo de -20 dB en la banda de WR34 como resultado del diseño para poder contar de esta manera con una buena adaptación. Finalmente se propondrá un criterio a seguir para optimizar este tipo de transiciones siguiendo el objetivo de mejor adaptación teniendo en cuenta el impacto de cada tramo sobre el rango de frecuencias en el que influye y se presentarán las características finales que presenta la transición bajo estudio. En este documento se introduce de manera breve la utilidad de los transformadores de impedancias lambda cuartos en líneas de transmisión, el estado del arte de las diferentes técnicas para su diseño, y la propuesta de diseño y caracterización objeto del presente trabajo. Posteriormente, se presenta el caso de estudio para el diseño de la transición para ser integrada a una bocina de choke. Luego, se introduce el marco teórico del trabajo presentando algunos ejemplos ilustrativos de tramos de guía de onda rectangular y guía de onda circular, introduciendo adaptadores de λ/4 en simulaciones. A continuación, se explica la implementación del modelo bajo estudio en CST (Computer Simulation Technology) Studio Suite. Finalmente se presenta la discusión de los resultados obtenidos, las conclusiones y líneas futuras de trabajo. ABSTRACT. Waveguide transitions are structures used in microwave in order to transfer and adapt the signal that travels from a certain transmission system (e.g. coaxial cable) to other transmission system or to a radiant system (e.g. horn antenna). Both transmission systems between which the transition adapts the signal can be different or from the same type, but with differences in some of their dimensions. There are different waveguide transitions that, depending on their utility, are designed and constructed in different sections: circular, rectangular, elliptic or combinations of the former. The section of the guide does not have to have a known geometric shape, although the standards to be followed in this thesis apply to rectangular and circular sections. In the work here presented, we aim to optimize by means of parametric simulations, a transition between a coaxial cable with a K-type connector and a waveguide with circular section following the standard presented by Flann, Millitech y Antarfs for the band WR34. The transition studied is called tapered transition, which is characterized by the progressive variation of its dimensions, until reaching the defined size of the corresponding standard. The way of optimizing the transition will be based in the study of the parameter S11 presented by the structure along the bandwidth. Since the standard used is the WR34, the bandwidth can be defined from 21.7 up to 33 GHz. It is aimed that the response of the S11 parameter be lower equal than -20dB in the frequency band under study according to the design in order to be well matched. Finally, a criterion to follow is proposed in order to optimize these transitions type, following the better-match objective. That will be done taking into account the impact of each section on the frequency range in which influences and the final characteristics of the studied transition will be presented. In this document, it is briefly introduced the utility of quarter-wave impedance transformers in transmission lines, the state-of-art of the different techniques for their design, and the proposal of design and characterization aimed with this work. Afterwards, the study case for the design of the transition to be integrated with a choke horn antenna will be presented. Later, the theoretical frame work is introduced, giving some illustrative examples of rectangular and circular waveguide sections, and also introducing λ/4 adaptors in the simulations. Subsequently, the implementation of the model under study in CST (Computer Simulation Technology) Studio Suite will be explained. Finally, the discussion of the results, conclusion and future lines of the work are presented.

Reduced facilitation and vesicular uptake in crustacean and mammalian neuromuscular junction by T-588, a neuroprotective compound

Bath application of compound T-588, a neuroprotective agent, reduced paired-pulse and repetitive-pulse facilitation at mammalian and crustacean neuromuscular junctions. In addition, it reduced voltage-gated sodium and potassium currents in a use-dependent fashion, but had only a small effect on the presynaptic Ca2+ conductance. By contrast, it blocked FM 1–43 vesicular uptake but not its release, in both species. Postsynaptically, T-588 reduced acetylcholine currents at the mammalian junction in a voltage-independent manner, but had no effect on the crayfish glutamate junction. All of these effects were rapidly reversible and were observed at concentrations close to the compound’s acute protective level. We propose that this set of mechanisms, which reduces high-frequency synaptic transmission, is an important contributory factor in the neuroprotective action of T-588.

Opposite actions of nitric oxide on cholinergic synapses: which pathways?

Nitric oxide (NO) produced opposite effects on acetylcholine (ACh) release in identified neuroneuronal Aplysia synapses depending on the excitatory or the inhibitory nature of the synapse. Extracellular application of the NO donor, SIN-1, depressed the inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) and enhanced the excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) evoked by presynaptic action potentials (1/60 Hz). Application of a membrane-permeant cGMP analog mimicked the effect of SIN-1 suggesting the participation of guanylate cyclase in the NO pathway. The guanylate cyclase inhibitor, methylene blue, blocked the NO-induced enhancement of EPSCs but only reduced the inhibition of IPSCs indicating that an additional mechanism participates to the depression of synaptic transmission by NO. Using nicotinamide, an inhibitor of ADP-ribosylation, we found that the NO-induced depression of ACh release on the inhibitory synapse also involves ADP-ribosylation mechanism(s). Furthermore, application of SIN-1 paired with cGMP-dependent protein kinase (cGMP-PK) inhibitors showed that cGMP-PK could play a role in the potentiating but not in the depressing effect of NO on ACh release. Increasing the frequency of stimulation of the presynaptic neuron from 1/60 Hz to 0.25 or 1 Hz potentiated the EPSCs and reduced the IPSCs. In these conditions, the potentiating effect of NO on the excitatory synapse was reduced, whereas its depressing effect on the inhibitory synapse was unaffected. Moreover the frequency-dependent enhancement of ACh release in the excitatory synapse was greatly reduced by the inhibition of NO synthase. Our results indicate that NO may be involved in different ways of modulation of synaptic transmission depending on the type of the synapse including synaptic plasticity.

High frequency of sex and equal frequencies of mating types in natural populations of the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila.

In ciliate protists, sex involves the temporary joining of two cells of compatible mating type, followed by meiosis and exchange of gametic nuclei between conjugants. Reproduction is by asexual binary fission following conjugation. For the many ciliates with fixed multiple mating types, frequency-dependent sex-ratio theory predicts equal frequencies of mating types, if sex is common in nature. Here, we report that in natural populations of Tetrahymena thermophila sexually immature cells, indicative of recent conjugation, are found from spring through fall. In addition, the seven mating types occur in approximately equal frequencies, and these frequencies appear to be maintained by interaction between complex, multiple mat alleles and environmental conditions during conjugation. Such genotype-environment interaction determining mating type frequency is rare among ciliates.

Ultrasound-assisted selective hydrogenation of C-5 acetylene alcohols with Lindlar catalysts

The selective hydrogenation of 2-methyl-3-butyn-2-ol (MBY) was performed in the presence of Lindlar catalyst, comparing conventional stirring with sonication at different frequencies of 40, 380 and 850 kHz. Under conventional stirring, the reaction rates were limited by intrinsic kinetics, while in the case of sonication, the reaction rates were 50–90% slower. However, the apparent reaction rates were found to be significantly frequency dependent with the highest rate observed at 40 kHz. The original and the recovered catalysts after the hydrogenation reaction were compared using bulk elemental analysis, powder X-ray diffraction and scanning and transmission electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. The studies showed that sonication led to the frequency-dependent fracturing of polycrystalline support particles with the highest impact caused by 40 kHz sonication, while monocrystals were undamaged. In contrast, the leaching of Pd/Pb particles did not depend on the frequency, which suggests that sonication removed only loosely-bound catalyst particles.