The relationship between fracture toughness and microstructure in titanium alloys

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics has been used to study the microstructural factors controlling the strength and toughness of two alpha-beta, titanium alloys. Fracture toughness was found to be independent of orientation for alloy Ti/6A1/4-V, but orientation dependent for IMI 700, bend and tension specimens giving similar toughness values. Increasing the solution temperature led to the usual inverse relationship between strength and toughness, with toughness becoming a minimum as the beta transus was approached. The production of a double heat treated microstructure led to a 100% increase in toughness in the high strength alloy and a 20% increase in alloy Ti/6A1/4V, with little decrease in strength. The double heat treated microstruoture was produced by cooling from the beta field into the alpha beta field, followed. by conventional solution treatment and ageing. Forging above the beta transus led to an increase in toughness over alpha beta forging in the high strength alloy, but had little effect on the toughness of Ti/6A1/4V. Light and electron microscopy showed that the increased toughness resulted from the alpha phase being changed from mainly continuous to a discontinuous platelet form in a transformed beta matrix. Void formation occurred at the alpha-beta interface and crack propagation was via the interface or across the platelet depending on which process required the least energy. Varying the solution treatment temperature produced a varying interplatelet spacing and platelet thickness. The finest interplatelet spacing was associated with the highest toughness, since a higher applied stress was required to give the necessary stress concentration to initiate void formation. The thickest alpha platelet size gave the highest toughness which could be interpreted in terms of Krafftt's "process zone size" and the critical crack tip displacement criterion by Hahn and Rosenfield from an analysis by Goodier and Field.

A study of fatigue failure in vulcanized rubber

Some aspects of fatigue failure in rubbers have been examined. Scanning electron micrographs of the surface exposed by the failure confirm the incremental, crack-propagation nature, of the fatigue process. Many other features of the failure surface have been identified and related to this process. The complicating effect of a reinforcing filler has also been investigated. The fatigue resistance of rubber test-pieces deformed in simple tension was measured as a function of frequency and temperature. This showed that an increase in frequency was equivalent to a decrease in temperature; for an amorphous unfilled rubber the time and temperature effects of crystallisation and fillers on the validity of this transformation is considered. This transformation indicates that hysteresis plays an important part in the fatigue process. Torsional pendulum measurements were used to demonstrate the dependence of the fatigue life on the mechanical damping. An apparatus was developed to measure the hysteresial energy loss directly at deformations, rates of deformation and temperatures consistent with a typical fatigue test. Measurements made with this apparatus are compared with fatigue values and a quantitative relationship is suggested describing fatigue, in terms of the energy lost per unit energy input in a cycle of a fatigue test.

Tensile properties of as fabricated, aged, and stretched SiC whisker and particle reinforced 2009 aluminium alloy

Tensile tests were carried out using specimens of 2009 aluminium alloy reinforced by either SiC whiskers or particles. The size distributions of the whiskers and particles in the matrix were obtained by image analysis. It was found that failure was a result of uniform void nucleation and coalescence in the as fabricated composites, or a result of fast crack propagation initiated by a flaw developed at clusters of SiC in the aged or stretched and aged composites. The strengths of the as fabricated composites were estimated based on the results of image analysis using continuum mechanics and dislocation theories. The estimation indicated that the tensile strengths are largely contributed to by composite strengthening, supplemented by residual dislocation strengthening and work hardening. Owing to the flaw controlled failure, the tensile strengths of the aged or stretched and aged composites were independent of aging time, aging temperature, and the amount of stretching. The elastic moduli of the composites were estimated using the Halpin-Tsai model and a good correlation was found between the measured and estimated moduli. © 1996 The Institute of Materials.

Intrinsic thresholds in polycrystalline Udimet 720

The long crack threshold behaviour of polycrystalline Udimet 720 has been investigated. Faceted crack growth is seen near threshold when the monotonic crack tip plastic zone is contained within the coarsest grain size. At very high load ratios R (=P min/P max) it is possiblefor the monotonic crack tip plastic zone to exceed the coarsest grain size throughout the entire crack growth regime and non1aceted structure insensitive crack growth is then seen down to threshold. Intrinsic threshold values were obtained for non1aceted and faceted crack growth using a constant K max, increasing K min, computer controlled load shedding technique (K is stress intensity factor). Very high R values are obtained at threshold using this technique (0.75-0.95), eliminating closure effects, so the intrinsic resistance of the material to crack propagation is reflected in these values. The intrinsic non1aceted threshold value ΔK th is lower (2.3 MN m -3/2) than the intrinsicfaceted ΔK th value (4.8 MN m -3/2). This is thought to reflect not only the effect of crack branching and deflection (in the faceted case) on the crack driving force, but also the inherent difference in resistance of the material to the two different crack propagation micromechanisms. © 1993 The Institute of Materials.

Interfacial effects on fatigue and fracture in discontinuously reinforced metal matrix composites

Interfaces in conventional monolithic alloys exert an important influence on fatigue and fracture behavior. In discontinuously reinforced metal matrix composites (MMCs), the role of interface is even more dominant. The interfacial is higher in MMCs and the interfaces are generally of high energy and chemically unstable. This paper reviews the factors which can affect interfacial strength in discontinuously reinforced MMCs, and the ways in which interfacial strength can be controlled. The effects of interfacial strength on fatigue crack propagation and fracture behavior are then illustrated.

Fatigue in metallic alloys containing non-metallic particles

This paper examines the effects of non-metallic particles on fatigue performance and, in particular, their influence on fatigue crack propagation at high ΔK (Kmax) levels. The nature and properties of a number of common non-metallic particles found in Fe- and Al- based alloys are described, and consideration is given to the consequences of mismatch of physical and chemical properties between particle and matrix. Effects of particles on fatigue in conventional alloys are illustrated and compared with the behaviour of Al/SiCp MMC. The problems associated with developing particulate reinforced MMC with adequate fatigue crack growth resistance and toughness for structural applications are discussed. © 1991.

Fatigue behaviour of C-Mn-B steels:effects of heat treatment prestrain and residual stress

The fatigue-crack propagation and threshold behaviour of a C-Mn steel containing boron has been investigated at a range of strength levels suitable for mining chain applications. The heat-treatment variables examined include two austenitizing temperatures (900 degree C and 1250 degree C) and a range of tempering treatments from the as-quenched condition to tempering at 400 degree C. In mining applications the haulage chains undergo a 'calibration' process which has the effect of imposing a tensile prestrain on the chain links before they go into service. Prestrain is shown to reduce threshold values in these steels and this behaviour is related to its effects on the residual stress distribution in the test specimens.

Growth of short fatigue cracks in titanium alloys

The initiation and early propagation of short fatigue cracks has been studied in detail in two alpha / beta titanium alloys as a function of microstructure. Detailed metallography is presented relating short crack growth rates to the microstructural features present. The work shows the significant differences in short crack propagation rates which can be achieved by microstructural changes within a single alloy.

Characterizing permanent deformation and fracture of asphalt mixtures by using compressive dynamic modulus tests

Permanent deformation and fracture may develop simultaneously when an asphalt mixture is subjected to a compressive load. The objective of this research is to separate viscoplasticity and viscofracture from viscoelasticity so that the permanent deformation and fracture of the asphalt mixtures can be individually and accurately characterized without the influence of viscoelasticity. The undamaged properties of 16 asphalt mixtures that have two binder types, two air void contents, and two aging conditions are first obtained by conducting nondestructive creep tests and nondestructive dynamic modulus tests. Testing results are analyzed by using the linear viscoelastic theory in which the creep compliance and the relaxation modulus are modeled by the Prony model. The dynamic modulus and phase angle of the undamaged asphalt mixtures remained constant with the load cycles. The undamaged asphalt mixtures are then used to perform the destructive dynamic modulus tests in which the dynamic modulus and phase angle of the damaged asphalt mixtures vary with load cycles. This indicates plastic evolution and crack propagation. The growth of cracks is signaled principally by the increase of the phase angle, which occurs only in the tertiary stage. The measured total strain is successfully decomposed into elastic strain, viscoelastic strain, plastic strain, viscoplastic strain, and viscofracture strain by employing the pseudostrain concept and the extended elastic-viscoelastic correspondence principle. The separated viscoplastic strain uses a predictive model to characterize the permanent deformation. The separated viscofracture strain uses a fracture strain model to characterize the fracture of the asphalt mixtures in which the flow number is determined and a crack speed index is proposed. Comparisons of the 16 samples show that aged asphalt mixtures with a low air void content have a better performance, resisting permanent deformation and fracture. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Encapsulamento de solventes em nanotubos de haloisita para promoção de auto-reparo em polímeros

Micro cracking during service is a critical problem in polymer structures and polymer composite materials. Self-healing materials are able to repair micro cracks, thus their preventing propagation and catastrophic failure of structural components. One of the self-healing approaches presented in the literature involves the use of solvents which react with the polymer. The objective of this research is to investigate a procedure to encapsulate solvents in halloysite nanotubes to promote self-healing ability in epoxy. Healing is triggered by crack propagation through embedded nanotubes in the polymer, which then release the liquid sovent into the crack plane. Two solvents were considered in this work: dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and nitrobenzene. The nanotubes were coated using the layer-by-layer technique of oppositely charged polyelectrolytes: cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and sodium polyacrylate. Solvent encapsulation was verified by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), analysis thermogravimetry (TGA), adsorption and desorption of nitrogen and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The introduction of the solvent DMSO into the cavity of the nanotubes was confirmed by the techniques employed. However, was not verified with nitrobenzene only promoted clay aggregation. The results suggest that the CTAB reacted with the halloystite to form a sealing layer on the surface of the nanotubes, thus encapsulating the solvent, while this was not verified using sodium polyacrylate.

Evaluación de tenacidad a la fractura e integridad estructural de tubos de generadores de vapor nucleares.

Dado el impacto negativo asociado a la ocurrencia de fallas en tubos de generadores de vapor (TGVs) en centrales nucleares, el estudio de la integridad estructural de éstos ha comenzado a recibir mayor atención recientemente. Diversas metodologías basadas en análisis de carga límite han sido propuestas para asegurar la integridad estructural de los tubos, según los requerimientos establecidos por las autoridades regulatorias. Éstas han conducido, sin embargo, a la definición de criterios de reparación o taponado de TGVs excesivamente conservativos. Por lo tanto, con el objetivo de reducir la cantidad de tubos innecesariamente removidos de servicio, nuevos criterios de evaluación de integridad han sido propuestos recientemente en la literatura. En este contexto, la mecánica de fractura elastoplástica se presenta como una alternativa para la evaluación de la integridad de TGVs, requiriéndose dos elementos para su aplicación: la estimación de la fuerza impulsora en términos del parámetro elastoplástico (por ejemplo, la integral J) y la medición experimental de la tenacidad a la fractura del material de los tubos (por ejemplo, a través de la curva de resistencia J-R). Este trabajo presenta el desarrollo de técnicas experimentales no normalizadas para la determinación de curvas J-R para TGVs con fisuras pasantes circunferenciales y longitudinales. Debido a las dimensiones reducidas de los TGVs, diferentes probetas no normalizadas fueron propuestas. Además, en los ensayos se utilizaron condiciones de carga de tracción y flexión con el objetivo de modelar más adecuadamente los estados tensionales y las condiciones de constraint reales en TGVs. Los valores de la integral J fueron estimados utilizando el método del factor η. La aptitud del método fue evaluada a partir de simulaciones numéricas de los ensayos propuestos mediante análisis elastoplásticos con la técnica de elementos finitos. Se encontró que condiciones de mayor constraint asociadas con fisuras profundas y cargas de flexión favorecen la validez del método del factor η, mientras que configuraciones de menor constraint dan como resultado factores η que exhiben una mayor dependencia con el nivel de carga aplicada. También se observó que los factores η basados en la apertura de la boca de la fisura (Crack Mouth Opening Displacement o CMOD) presentan una dependencia mucho menor con el nivel de carga respecto a los factores η definidos a partir del desplazamiento del punto de aplicación de la carga (Load Line Displacement o LLD). Se presentan los valores del factor η para las probetas estudiadas con fisuras profundas (a/W ≥ 0,40). Se realizaron ensayos de fractura a temperatura ambiente y 300 °C con probetas obtenidas de TGVs nucleares fabricados a partir de las aleaciones 690 (Ni: 61; Cr: 29; Fe: 8,95, % en peso) y 800 (Ni: 33; Cr: 21,6; Fe: 42,2, % en peso). Durante los ensayos de fractura a temperatura ambiente, la extensión estable de fisura fue medida mediante una técnica óptica utilizando un microscopio digital. Para estos ensayos también se aplicó el método de normalización que propone la norma ASTM E1820-15 en el Anexo 15, encontrándose una buena coincidencia entre las longitudes estimadas por éste y las medidas ópticamente. De esta manera, el método de normalización fue utilizado para los ensayos a alta temperatura. Los resultados experimentales mostraron que ambos materiales tienen elevadas tenacidades a la fractura, siendo la aleación 800 la que presentó curvas J-R más elevadas que la aleación 690 tanto para fisuras circunferenciales como longitudinales. Las curvas J-R para ambas aleaciones mostraron un efecto marcado con la orientación de la fisura, es decir que existe una importante anisotropía en las propiedades de fractura: las fisuras circunferenciales presentaron curvas J-R más elevadas que las fisuras longitudinales. El nivel de constraint desarrollado en los ensayos, dado por las condiciones de carga de tracción y flexión, evidenció poco efecto sobre las curvas J-R para probetas con fisuras profundas (a/W ~ 0,50). A su vez, la temperatura de ensayo (temperatura ambiente y 300 °C) presentó un efecto prácticamente nulo para ambas aleaciones. Usando las propiedades de fractura obtenidas en este trabajo, la metodología FAD (Failure Assessment Diagram) fue propuesta y utilizada para la predicción de las condiciones de falla de TGVs fisurados para diferentes geometrías de fisura y condiciones de carga. La comparación entre análisis teóricos y datos experimentales muestra la potencialidad del FAD como una metodología capaz de predecir adecuadamente las fallas de estos componentes.

Evaluación de tenacidad a la fractura e integridad estructural de tubos de generadores de vapor nucleares.

Dado el impacto negativo asociado a la ocurrencia de fallas en tubos de generadores de vapor (TGVs) en centrales nucleares, el estudio de la integridad estructural de éstos ha comenzado a recibir mayor atención recientemente. Diversas metodologías basadas en análisis de carga límite han sido propuestas para asegurar la integridad estructural de los tubos, según los requerimientos establecidos por las autoridades regulatorias. Éstas han conducido, sin embargo, a la definición de criterios de reparación o taponado de TGVs excesivamente conservativos. Por lo tanto, con el objetivo de reducir la cantidad de tubos innecesariamente removidos de servicio, nuevos criterios de evaluación de integridad han sido propuestos recientemente en la literatura. En este contexto, la mecánica de fractura elastoplástica se presenta como una alternativa para la evaluación de la integridad de TGVs, requiriéndose dos elementos para su aplicación: la estimación de la fuerza impulsora en términos del parámetro elastoplástico (por ejemplo, la integral J) y la medición experimental de la tenacidad a la fractura del material de los tubos (por ejemplo, a través de la curva de resistencia J-R). Este trabajo presenta el desarrollo de técnicas experimentales no normalizadas para la determinación de curvas J-R para TGVs con fisuras pasantes circunferenciales y longitudinales. Debido a las dimensiones reducidas de los TGVs, diferentes probetas no normalizadas fueron propuestas. Además, en los ensayos se utilizaron condiciones de carga de tracción y flexión con el objetivo de modelar más adecuadamente los estados tensionales y las condiciones de constraint reales en TGVs. Los valores de la integral J fueron estimados utilizando el método del factor η. La aptitud del método fue evaluada a partir de simulaciones numéricas de los ensayos propuestos mediante análisis elastoplásticos con la técnica de elementos finitos. Se encontró que condiciones de mayor constraint asociadas con fisuras profundas y cargas de flexión favorecen la validez del método del factor η, mientras que configuraciones de menor constraint dan como resultado factores η que exhiben una mayor dependencia con el nivel de carga aplicada. También se observó que los factores η basados en la apertura de la boca de la fisura (Crack Mouth Opening Displacement o CMOD) presentan una dependencia mucho menor con el nivel de carga respecto a los factores η definidos a partir del desplazamiento del punto de aplicación de la carga (Load Line Displacement o LLD). Se presentan los valores del factor η para las probetas estudiadas con fisuras profundas (a/W ≥ 0,40). Se realizaron ensayos de fractura a temperatura ambiente y 300 °C con probetas obtenidas de TGVs nucleares fabricados a partir de las aleaciones 690 (Ni: 61; Cr: 29; Fe: 8,95, % en peso) y 800 (Ni: 33; Cr: 21,6; Fe: 42,2, % en peso). Durante los ensayos de fractura a temperatura ambiente, la extensión estable de fisura fue medida mediante una técnica óptica utilizando un microscopio digital. Para estos ensayos también se aplicó el método de normalización que propone la norma ASTM E1820-15 en el Anexo 15, encontrándose una buena coincidencia entre las longitudes estimadas por éste y las medidas ópticamente. De esta manera, el método de normalización fue utilizado para los ensayos a alta temperatura. Los resultados experimentales mostraron que ambos materiales tienen elevadas tenacidades a la fractura, siendo la aleación 800 la que presentó curvas J-R más elevadas que la aleación 690 tanto para fisuras circunferenciales como longitudinales. Las curvas J-R para ambas aleaciones mostraron un efecto marcado con la orientación de la fisura, es decir que existe una importante anisotropía en las propiedades de fractura: las fisuras circunferenciales presentaron curvas J-R más elevadas que las fisuras longitudinales. El nivel de constraint desarrollado en los ensayos, dado por las condiciones de carga de tracción y flexión, evidenció poco efecto sobre las curvas J-R para probetas con fisuras profundas (a/W ~ 0,50). A su vez, la temperatura de ensayo (temperatura ambiente y 300 °C) presentó un efecto prácticamente nulo para ambas aleaciones. Usando las propiedades de fractura obtenidas en este trabajo, la metodología FAD (Failure Assessment Diagram) fue propuesta y utilizada para la predicción de las condiciones de falla de TGVs fisurados para diferentes geometrías de fisura y condiciones de carga. La comparación entre análisis teóricos y datos experimentales muestra la potencialidad del FAD como una metodología capaz de predecir adecuadamente las fallas de estos componentes.

Caracterização Microestrutural e Tribocorrosiva de Sistemas Metalocerâmicos Odontológicos do Tipo Ni-Cr/Porcelana E Ni-Cr/Ti/Porcelana

The partial fixed prosthodontics restoration is used to rehabilitate form and function of partial or total compromised teeth, having to remain permanently joined to remainder tooth. The most useful material on prosthodontics is the feldspar porcelain, commercialized as aluminosilicate powders. Dental porcelains are presented with limited mechanical properties to rehabilitate extensive spaces. The association with Ni-Cr metallic systems (metal-ceramic system) allows that the metallic substructure compensates the fragile porcelain nature, preserving the thermal insulation and aesthetics desirable, as well as reducing the possibility of cracking during matication efforts. Cohesive flaws by low mechanical strength connect the metallic substructure to the oral environment, characterized by a electrolytic solution (saliva), by aggressive temperature, pH cyclic changes and mechanical requests. This process results on ionic liberation that could promote allergic or inflammatory responses, and/or clinical degradation of ceramometal system. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of an intermediate titanium layer on the microscopic fracture behavior of porcelains on ceramometal systems. Plasma deposition of titanium films result in regular passivating oxide layers which act as barriers to protect the metallic substrate against the hazardous effects of corrosive saliva. Tribocorrosion tests were performed to simulate the oral environment and mechanical stress, making it possible the early detection of crack formation and growth on metal-ceramic systems, which estimate the adherence between the compounds of this system. Plain samples consisting of dental feldspar porcelain deposited either onto metallic substrates or titanium films were fired and characterized by scanning electron microscopy. The result showed that the titanium film improved the adherence of the system compared to conventional metal-ceramic interfaces, thus holding crack propagation

Influência da sequência de empilhamento nas propriedades mecânicas de laminados compósitos submetidos à tração

Composite laminates with plies in different directions finely dispersed are classified as homogenized. The expected benefits of homogenization include increased mechanical strength, toughness and resistance to delamination. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of stacking sequence on the tensile strength of laminates. Composite plates were fabricated using unidirectional layers of carbon/epoxy prepreg with configurations [903/303/-303]S and [90/30/-30]3S. Specimens were subjected to tensile and open hole tension (OHT) tests. According to the experimental results, the mean values of strength for the homogenized laminates [90/30/-30]3S were 140% and 120% greater for tensile and OHT tests, respectively, as compared to laminates with configuration [903/303/-303]S. The increase in tensile strength for more homogenized laminates was associated with the increment in interlaminar interfaces, which requires more energy to produce delamination, and the more complicated crack propagation through plies with different orientations. OHT strength was not affected by the presence of the hole due to the predominance of the interlaminar shear stress in relation to the stress concentration produced by the hole

Damage and fracture algorithm using the screened Poisson equation and local remeshing

We propose a crack propagation algorithm which is independent of particular constitutive laws and specific element technology. It consists of a localization limiter in the form of the screened Poisson equation with local mesh refinement. This combination allows the cap- turing of strain localization with good resolution, even in the absence of a sufficiently fine initial mesh. In addition, crack paths are implicitly defined from the localized region, cir- cumventing the need for a specific direction criterion. Observed phenomena such as mul- tiple crack growth and shielding emerge naturally from the algorithm. In contrast with alternative regularization algorithms, curved cracks are correctly represented. A staggered scheme for standard equilibrium and screened equations is used. Element subdivision is based on edge split operations using a given constitutive quantity (either damage or void fraction). To assess the robustness and accuracy of this algorithm, we use both quasi-brittle benchmarks and ductile tests.