Climate change and the tourism sector: the clean development mechanism, a market instrument under the Kyoto Protocol to achieve multiple objectives

The main objective of this research is to demonstrate that the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), an instrument created under a global international treaty, can achieve multiple objectives beyond those for which it has been established. As such, while being already a powerful tool to contribute to the global fight against climate change, the CDM can also be successful if applied to different sectors not contemplated before. In particular, this research aimed at demonstrating that a wider utilization of the CDM in the tourism sector can represent an innovative way to foster sustainable tourism and generate additional benefits. The CDM was created by Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and represents an innovative tool to reduce greenhouse gases emissions through the implementation of mitigation activities in developing countries which generate certified emission reductions (CERs), each of them equivalent to one ton of CO2 not emitted in the atmosphere. These credits can be used for compliance reasons by industrialized countries in achieving their reduction targets. The logic path of this research begins with an analysis of the scientific evidences of climate change and its impacts on different economic sectors including tourism and it continues with a focus on the linkages between climate and the tourism sector. Then, it analyses the international responses to the issue of climate change and the peculiar activities in the international arena addressing climate change and the tourism sector. The concluding part of the work presents the objectives and achievements of the CDM and its links to the tourism sector by considering case studies of existing projects which demonstrate that the underlying question can be positively answered. New opportunities for the tourism sector are available.

The Effectiveness of the Clean Development Mechanism – A law and economics analysis

Climate change has been acknowledged as a threat to humanity. Most scholars agree that to avert dangerous climate change and to transform economies into low-carbon societies, deep global emission reductions are required by the year 2050. Under the framework of the Kyoto Protocol, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the only market-based instrument that encourages industrialised countries to pursue emission reductions in developing countries. The CDM aims to pay the incremental finance necessary to operationalize emission reduction projects which are otherwise not financially viable. According to the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol, the CDM should finance projects that are additional to those which would have happened anyway, contribute to sustainable development in the countries hosting the projects, and be cost-effective. To enable the identification of such projects, an institutional framework has been established by the Kyoto Protocol which lays out responsibilities for public and private actors. This thesis examines whether the CDM has achieved these objectives in practice and can thus be considered an effective tool to reduce emissions. To complete this investigation, the book applies economic theory and analyses the CDM from two perspectives. The first perspective is the supply-dimension which answers the question of how, in practice, the CDM system identified additional, cost-effective, sustainable projects and, generated emission reductions. The main contribution of this book is the second perspective, the compliance-dimension, which answers the question of whether industrialised countries effectively used the CDM for compliance with their Kyoto targets. The application of the CDM in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is used as a case-study. Where the analysis identifies inefficiencies within the supply or the compliance dimension, potential improvements of the legal framework are proposed and discussed.

Enamel loss and adhesive remnants following bracket removal and various clean-up procedures in vitro

This study evaluated the enamel loss and composite remnants after debonding and clean-up. The tested null hypothesis is that there are no differences between different polishing systems regarding removing composite remnants without damaging the tooth surface. Brackets were bonded to 75 extracted human molars and removed after a storage period of 100 hours. The adhesive remnant index (ARI) was evaluated. The clean-up was carried out with five different procedures: 1. carbide bur; 2. carbide bur and Brownie and Greenie silicone polishers; 3. carbide bur and Astropol polishers; 4. carbide bur and Renew polishers; and 5. carbide bur, Brownie, Greenie and PoGo polishers. Silicone impressions were made at baseline (T0) and after debonding (T1) and polishing (T2) to produce plaster replicas. The replicas were analysed with a three-dimensional laser scanner and measured with analytical software. Statistical analysis was performed with the Kruskal-Wallis test and pairwise Wilcoxon tests with Bonferroni-Holm adjustment (α = 0.05). Enamel breakouts after debonding were detectable in 27 per cent of all cases, with a mean volume loss of 0.02 mm(3) (±0.03 mm(3)) and depth of 44.9 μm (±48.3 μm). The overall ARI scores was 3 with a few scores of 1 and 2. The composite remnants after debonding had a mean volume of 2.48 mm(3) (±0.92 mm(3)). Mean volume loss due to polishing was 0.05 mm(3) (±0.26 mm(3)) and the composite remnants had a mean volume of 0.22 mm(3) (±0.32 mm(3)). There were no statistically significant differences in volumetric changes after polishing (P = 0.054) between the different clean-up methods. However, sufficient clean-up without enamel loss was difficult to achieve.

Clean water in the classroom : understanding the importance of water quality

This study’s objective was to answer three research questions related to students’ knowledge and attitudes about water quality and availability issues. It is important to understand what knowledge students have about environmental problems such as these, because today’s students will become the problem solvers of the future. If environmental problems, such as those related to water quality, are ever going to be solved, students must be environmentally literate. Several methods of data collection were used. Surveys were given to both Bolivian and Jackson High School students in order to comparison their initial knowledge and attitudes about water quality issues. To study the effects of instruction, a unit of instruction about water quality issues was then taught to the Jackson High School students to see what impact it would have on their knowledge. In addition, the learning of two different groups of Jackson High School students was compared—one group of general education students and a second group of students that were learning in an inclusion classroom and included special education students and struggling learners form the general education population. Student and teacher journals, a unit test, and postsurvey responses were included in the data set. Results suggested that when comparing Bolivian students and Jackson High School students, Jackson High School students were more knowledgeable concerning clean water infrastructure and its importance, despite the fact that these issues were less relevant to their lives than for their Bolivian counterparts. Although overall, the data suggested that all the Jackson High students showed evidence that the instruction impacted their knowledge, the advanced Biology students appeared to show stronger gains than their peers in an inclusion classroom.

How to avoid clean intermittent catheterization in men with ileal bladder substitution

PURPOSE: In male patients with ileal bladder substitute we ascertained the likelihood of spontaneous voiding failure, the corrective procedures required and the eventual outcomes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Following cystectomy and ileal bladder substitution for urothelial cancer between April 1985 and September 2002 male patients were identified and analyzed from the prospective departmental database. Four patients underwent ileum conduit conversion following urethral recurrence or pouch necrosis and were excluded from study. Funnel-shaped outlets were avoided during bladder substitute surgery after the first 4 patients with this configuration experienced voiding failure and required corrective procedures. Only patients with a minimum 5-year followup were assessed for voiding failure, corrective procedures and final outcomes. RESULTS: Of 354 patients with a median age of 65 years (range 36 to 84) treated with bladder substitute 180 (51%) were alive at 5 years. All 180 of these patients spontaneously voided within 3 months of surgery. During this 5-year observation period 22 (12%) patients experienced voiding problems requiring de-obstructive procedures. Following intervention 177 (98%) patients were spontaneously voiding by 5 years. Of 237 patients 77 (32%) were alive at 10 years. Of these 77 patients followed for another 5 years 10 (13%) had similar voiding problems requiring de-obstructive procedures. Subsequently 74 (96%) were voiding spontaneously by 10 years. CONCLUSIONS: Patients often fail to void spontaneously after ileal bladder substitution. However, if a funnel-shaped outlet is avoided and de-obstructive surgery is appropriately implemented, excellent long-term results are seen with spontaneous voiding and clean intermittent catheterization can be avoided.

Syntheses and structures of molybdenum and tungsten complexes capable of epoxidaton and copper coordination polymers and dendrimers

We are interested in the syntheses of new complexes and in their characterization by single crystal X-ray diffraction techniques. Once we understand the structures, studies aimed at understanding uses of these complexes in the field of catalytic epoxidation using complexes soluble in water and syntheses of thin films (not assessed) were conducted. The syntheses, characterization and catalytic properties of a series of mononuclear, dinuclear and tetranuclear molybdenum and tungsten oxo complexes are described. The syntheses and structural characterization of two copper coordination polymers with 3,5-dihydroxylbenzoate ligand, and five paddlewheel shaped copper dendrimers coordinated with Fréchet-type dendrons are also detailed. The background of this dissertation is outlined in Chapter 1. Chapter 2 describes the syntheses, and characterization of two new mononuclear molybdenum(VI) and tungsten(VI) oxo complexes, MoO2Cl2(OPPh2CH2OH)2, and WO2Cl2(OPPh2CH2OH)2, bearing hydrophilic phosphine oxide ligand. The catalytic properties of these complexes for the epoxidation of cis-cyclooctene were also studied. Two new dinuclear molybdenum(VI) and tungsten(VI) oxo complexes Mo2O4Cl2[(HOCH2)PhPOO]2, and (CH3O)2(O)W(μ-O)(μ-O2PPh2)2W(O)(CH3O)2, bearing organophosphinate ligand are described in Chapter 3 and 4. Chapter 4 and 5 describes the syntheses and characterization of tetranuclear molybdenum(V) oxo complexes bearing various organophosphinate ligands. The catalytic abilities of these complexes for the epoxidation of cis-cyclooctene in the presence of hydrogen peroxide as oxidant were explored as well. Various spectroscopic methods, such as IR, UV-vis, and NMR are used to characterize the nature of these complexes. Crystal structures of compounds MoO2Cl2(OPPh2CH2OH)2, WO2Cl2(OPPh2CH2OH)2, Mo2O4Cl2[(HOCH2)PhPOO]2, (CH3O)2(O)W(μ-O)(μ-O2PPh2)2W(O)(CH3O)2, and Mo4(µ3-O)4(µ-O2PR2)4O4 (R=Ph, Me, ClCH2, o-C6H4(CH2)2) are also presented. The syntheses, and structural characterization of three copper(II) coordination polymers bearing 3,5-dihydroxybenzoate ligand are described in Chapter 6. Two copper(II) coordination polymers, [Cu2(3,5-dhb)2(pyridine)4]n, and [Cu2(3,5-dhb)4]n were afforded based on different amount of pyridine used in the reaction. The structures of these complexes are further built into 2D or 3D networks via inter or intra hydrogen bonds. The syntheses and structural characterization of the zinc(II) monomer, Zn(3,5-dhb)2(pyridine)2 is also described in this Chapter. Chapter 7 describes the syntheses, and characterization of five dendronized dicopper complexes bearing different generations of Fréchet-type dendrons. The structures of 3,5- bis(benzoyloxl)benzoic acid, 3,5-(PhCOO)2PhCOOH (G1), Cu2(3,5-dhb)4(THF)2, Cu2(G1)4(pyridine)2, and Cu2(G1)4(CH3OH)2 were characterized unambiguously by single X-ray diffraction. In addition, all compounds were characterized by FT-IR, UV-vis spectroscopy and elemental analyses.

The Testing and Concentration of a Tungsten Ore

At the present time the principal uses for tungsten lie in the manufacture of ferro-alloys and tungsten steels. Due to it’s hardening and strengthening characteristics it holds an important position among steel hardening metals. The great rush for it’s production during the World War years clearly points to it’s importance in the manufacture of armament.

Clean intermittent self-catheterization after botulinum neurotoxin type A injections: short-term effect on quality of life

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the hypothesis that the need for clean intermittent self-catheterization after botulinum neurotoxin type A injections is outweighed by the efficacy of this treatment, so that clean intermittent self-catheterization is not a burden for patients with refractory idiopathic detrusor overactivity. METHODS: Women undergoing intradetrusor injections of 200 units botulinum neurotoxin type A for refractory idiopathic detrusor overactivity were evaluated prospectively. Clean intermittent self-catheterization was discussed with all patients and its possible need after botulinum neurotoxin type A treatment. As indicator of quality of life, lower urinary tract symptom distress and effect on daily activities were assessed using the validated Urogenital Distress Inventory (UDI-6) and Incontinence Impact Questionnaire (IIQ-7) before and 4 weeks after receiving botulinum neurotoxin type A injections. RESULTS: Mean age of the 65 women was 51 years, and all voided spontaneously before botulinum neurotoxin type A injections. After botulinum neurotoxin type A treatment, 28 (43%) required clean intermittent self-catheterization. Mean UDI-6 and IIQ-7 scores reduced from 61 to 33 (P<.001) and 62 to 30 (P<.001) in women performing clean intermittent self-catheterization and from 60 to 28 (P<.001) and 64 to 25 (P<.001) in those who did not, respectively. Comparison of quality of life in women performing clean intermittent self-catheterization and in those who did not revealed no significant differences before and after botulinum neurotoxin type A treatment. CONCLUSION: Clean intermittent self-catheterization after botulinum neurotoxin type A intradetrusor injections did not impair quality of life in appropriately informed and selected women in the short term. All patients should be informed of the potential need for clean intermittent self-catheterization after botulinum neurotoxin type A injections, and a willingness to do so should be a prerequisite for this still unlicensed off-label treatment.

Clean intermittent self-catheterization: a burden for the patient?

AIM: To assess patients' perception of clean intermittent self-catheterization (CISC) for voiding dysfunction. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A total of 101 patients performing CISC because of voiding dysfunction were invited to participate in this questionnaire survey. The response rate was 91% (92/101). RESULTS: The mean time over which CISC was performed was 5 years (standard deviation (SD) +/- 6.3) and the mean frequency of CISC per day was three times (SD +/- 2). Almost 80% (72/92) of the patients perceived CISC as easy or very easy and CISC did not interfere at all or interfered a little bit with work or other regular daily activities in more than 80% (76/92). Almost 90% (80/92) reported no or minimal pain while performing CISC. This did not interfere at all or interfered a little bit with work or other regular daily activities in almost 90% (80/92). Quality of life improved considerably due to CISC in more than 60% (56/92) and 12% (11/92) complained of a deterioration. In multivariable analysis, severe pain performing CISC (odds ratio 20.9, 95% confidence interval 1.7-259.9, P = 0.018) was the only factor that predicted poor quality of life. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of patients considered CISC to be an easy and painless procedure which did not interfere with daily activities. Consequently, quality of life improved in more than 60% of the patients. Therefore, CISC does not appear to be a burden for the patient and, from a patient's perspective, can be recommended.

Negotiated settlements: The utilities, multiple regulators and clean air

Utilities have made strides in reducing air pollutant levels, but the proposed 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments call for even greater reductions and more stringent enforcement. Federal and state air enforcement agencies now encourage the use of negotiated settlements as a way to bring about compliance. This research examines the operation of such procedures in 19 case studies and a formal survey with the negotiators to account for the differences in the nature of the settlements and to identify the factors contributing to their perceived success. ^

Geological and geochemical characteristics of the Tersang gold deposit, Malaysia: implications for genesis and gold exploration

The Central gold belt of peninsular Malaysia comprises a number of gold deposits located in the east of the N-S striking Bentong-Raub Suture Zone. The Tersang gold deposit is one of the gold deposits in the gold belt and hosted in sandstone, rhyolite and breccia units. The deposit has an inferred resource of 528,000 ounces of gold. The geochronology of the Tersang deposit has been newly constrained by LA ICP-MS U-Pb zircon dating. The maximum depositional age of the host sedimentary rocks ranges from Early Carboniferous to Early Permian (261.5 ± 4.9 Ma to 333.5 ± 2.5 Ma) for the host sandstone and Late Triassic for the rhyolite intrusion (218.8 ± 1.7 Ma). Textural characteristics of pyrite have revealed five types including (1) Euhedral to subhedral pyrite with internal fracturing and porous cores located in the sandstone layers (pyrite 1); (2) Anhedral pyrite overgrowths on pyrite 1 and disseminated in stage 1 vein (pyrite 2); (3) Fracture-filled or vein pyrite located in stages 1 and 2 vein (pyrite 3); (4) Euhedral pyrite with internal fractures also located in stage 2 vein (pyrite 4); and (5) Subhedral clean pyrite located in the rhyolite intrusion (pyrite 5). Based on pyrite mapping and spot analyses, two main stages of gold enrichment are documented from the Tersang gold deposit. Gold in sandstone-hosted pyrite 1 (mean 4.3 ppm) shows best correlation with Bi and Pb (as evidenced on pyrite maps). In addition, gold in pyrite 3 (mean 8 ppm) located in stage 2 vein shows a good correlation with As, Ag, Sb, Cu, Tl, and Pb. In terms of gold exploration, we suggest that elements such as As, Ag, Sb, Cu, Tl, Bi, and Pb associated with Au may serve as vectoring tools in gold exploration. Our new geological, structural, geochemical and isotopic data together with mineral paragenesis, pyrite chemistry and ore fluid characteristics indicate that the Tersang gold deposit is comparable to a sediment-hosted gold deposit. Our new genetic model suggests deposition of the Permo-Carboniferous sediments followed by intrusion of rhyolitic magma in the Late Triassic. At a later stage, gold mineralisation overprinted the rhyolite intrusion and the sandstone.