Effects of conservation interventions on the archaeological Roman site of Merida (Spain). Advance of research.

Research on the assessment of the effects of conservation/restoration treatments on stone material has been significant in recent years, with focus on the early observation of decay caused by the application of these treatments. However, in the case of archaeological sites, research is still scarce and few studies on the subject have been published. Restoration, as everything else, has changed according to trends, mainly guided by the release of new products and technologies, an experimental field where scientific assessment of suitability, efficacy and durability pre-evaluations of treatments are not always conducted. Some efforts have been made to solve this problem in the architectural field, where functional needs and technical requirements force to set clear standards. Unfortunately, archaeological sites, unlike historic buildings, have specific features that preclude the extrapolation of these results. A critical review of the methodologies, products and restoration materials is necessary, coupled with deeper research on degradation mechanisms caused by these treatments in the mid- and long-term. The aim of this paper is to introduce the research on the above issues using Merida as a case study.

Census, reproductive biology, and germination of Astragalus gines-lopezii (Fabaceae), a narrow and endangered endemic species of SW Spain

Astragalus gines-lopezii Talavera, Podlech, Devesa & F.M.Vázquez (Fabaceae) is a threatened endemic species with a distribution restricted to a very small area in Badajoz Province (Extremadura Region, SW Spain) and only 2 populations are known. This species was catalogued in the ?Endangered? category in the 2008 Red List and the 2010 Threatened Spanish Vascular Flora List. Despite its status as an endangered species, at present very little is known about the distribution, census, and reproductive biology of this species. In this study we have carried out an exhaustive census of A. gines-lopezii , and we have evaluated the production of flowers, fruits, and seeds and the existence or not of intra- and interpopulation variability in seed germination. Results have highlighted the high reproductive capacity of this species on the basis of a high production of flowers, fruits, and seeds. Mechanical scarification of seeds was effective for increasing germination. Thus, initial germination (22%?60%) was increased to 97%?99% when seeds were rubbed with sandpapers. A high intra- and interpopulation variability in seed germination was found in this species. A. gines-lopezii produces seeds with different degrees of physical dormancy, varying this grade among different individuals within a population.

Integrated studies for the evaluation of conservation treatments on stone material from archaeological sites. Application to the case of Mérida (Spain)

In recent decades archaeological sites have been subject of many interventions. The application of conservation treatments, such us consolidation and protection ones by means of using, for instance, synthetic resins or organosilicic compounds, has been demonstrated inadequate in many cases, and even harmful for the heritage materials [1]. Evaluation studies should be a mandatory task, ideally before and after the intervention, but both tasks are complex and unusual in the case of archaeological heritage. Moreover, there is a general lack of knowledge in the mid and long term effects of these treatments, and how to act when these have resulted in deterioration of the original material. Remains of Roman Augusta Emerita, located in Merida (Spain), have gone through many interventions since the first archaeological campaign, in 1910. Some of them have demonstrated already to be harmful [2], others, more recent, must be evaluated in order to determine its effectiveness and durability, considering that many of these treatments are currently still applied. For this purpose a range of parameters has been measured such as color, surface hardness and roughness, mechanical or hydric properties, porosity, etc. on the original material (granite, marble and mortars mainly), and then the transformations of those same parameters analyzed after treatment, both in situ, in places where a intervention is documented, and in the laboratory, in samples. The study is being conducted both in the laboratory (Petrophysics Laboratory within IGEO) and in situ, on selected archaeological sites of Mérida (Theater and House of Mitreo). The comparison of results in untreated and treated areas of the site, and in treated-untreated samples, allows the distinction of variables that affect the interaction between products and stone material, issues such us effectiveness and durability of treatment and its validation or dismissal.

Habitat management for conservation of pollinators in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain

La gestión de hábitat orientada a la conservación de polinizadores en los agro-ecosistemas requiere una selección de especies vegetales atendiendo fundamentalmente a dos criterios: i) el potencial atractivo de sus flores a los polinizadores; y ii) la simplicidad en su manejo agronómico. Además de estas premisas, es necesario considerar la capacidad invasora de estas especies vegetales, debido a que algunas de las más atractivas pueden resultar invasoras en determinados agro-ecosistemas. Por lo tanto, es preciso determinar qué especies vegetales son las más indicadas para ser implementadas en cada agro-ecosistema. En la presente tesis doctoral se plantea la búsqueda de las especies vegetales adecuadas para atraer polinizadores en los agro-ecosistemas del centro de España. En una primera aproximación, se ha evaluado la atracción y expansión espacial (potencial invasivo) de seis plantas perennes de la familia Lamiaceae (aromáticas), elegidas por ser nativas de la región mediterránea. La elección de las especies vegetales se ha llevado a cabo con el fin de crear márgenes funcionales basados en la mezcla de especies vegetales con distintos periodos de floración, de modo que prolonguen la disponibilidad de recursos florales en el tiempo. Tras un primer año dedicado al establecimiento de las especies aromáticas, en los dos años siguientes se ha estudiado la atracción individual y combinada de las especies vegetales sobre los polinizadores, y como ésta se ve afectada por la densidad y la morfología floral, utilizando para ello un diseño experimental en bloques al azar. Los resultados de este estudio han puesto de manifiesto que la morfología floral no tuvo influencia sobre la atracción de las especies vegetales, pero si la densidad floral, puesto que las especies vegetales con mayor densidad de flores (Nepeta tuberosa e Hyssopus officinalis) han mostrado mayor atracción a polinizadores. Cabe destacar que de las seis especies consideradas, dos especies de verano (Melissa officinalis y Thymbra capitata) no han contribuido de forma efectiva a la atracción de la mezcla hacia los polinizadores, mostrando una reducción significativa de este parámetro respecto a las otras especies aromáticas a lo largo del verano. Se ha observado que ninguna de las especies aromáticas evaluadas ha mostrado tendencia invasora a lo largo del estudio. En base a estos resultados, se puede concluir que entre las especies aromáticas estudiadas, N. tuberosa, H. officinalis y Salvia verbenaca son las que ofrecen mayor potencial para ser utilizadas en la conservación de polinizadores. De forma similar al caso de las plantas aromáticas, se ha llevado a cabo una segunda experimentación que incluía doce plantas anuales con floración de primavera, en la que se evaluó la atracción a polinizadores y su comportamiento agronómico. Este estudio con especies herbáceas se ha prolongado durante dos años, utilizando un diseño experimental de bloques aleatorios. Las variables analizadas fueron: el atractivo de las distintas especies vegetales a los polinizadores, su eficiencia de atracción (calculada como una combinación de la duración de la floración y las visitas de insectos), su respuesta a dos tipos de manejo agronómico (cultivo en mezcla frente a monocultivo; laboreo frente a no-laboreo) y su potencial invasivo. Los resultados de esta segunda experimentación han mostrado que las flores de Borago officinalis, Echium plantagineum, Phacelia tanacetifolia y Diplotaxis tenuifolia son atractivas a las abejas, mientras que las flores de Calendula arvensis, Coriandrum sativum, D. tenuifolia y Lobularia maritima son atractivas a los sírfidos. Con independencia del tipo de polinizadores atraídos por cada especie vegetal, se ha observado una mayor eficiencia de atracción en parcelas con monocultivo de D. tenuifolia respecto a las parcelas donde se cultivó una mezcla de especies herbáceas, si bien en estas últimas se observó mayor eficiencia de atracción que en la mayoría de parcelas mono-específicas. Respecto al potencial invasivo de las especies herbáceas, a pesar de que algunas de las más atractivas a polinizadores (P. tanacetifolia and C. arvensis) mostraron tendencia a un comportamiento invasor, su capacidad de auto-reproducción se vio reducida con el laboreo. En resumen, D. tenuifolia es la única especie que presentó una alta eficiencia de atracción a distintos tipos de polinizadores, conjuntamente con una alta capacidad de auto-reproducción pero sin mostrar carácter invasor. Comparando el atractivo de las especies vegetales utilizadas en este estudio sobre los polinizadores, D. tenuifolia es la especie más recomendable para su cultivo orientado a la atracción de polinizadores en agro-ecosistemas en el centro de España. Esta especie herbácea, conocida como rúcula, tiene la ventaja añadida de ser una especie comercializada para el consumo humano. Además de su atractivo a polinizadores, deben considerarse otros aspectos relacionados con la fisiología y el comportamiento de esta especie vegetal en los agro-ecosistemas antes de recomendar su cultivo. Dado que el cultivo en un campo agrícola de una nueva especie vegetal implica unos costes de producción, por ejemplo debidos a la utilización de agua de riego, es necesario evaluar el incremento en dichos costes en función de demanda hídrica específica de esa especie vegetal. Esta variable es especialmente importante en zonas dónde se presentan sequías recurrentes como es el caso del centro y sur-este de la península Ibérica. Este razonamiento ha motivado un estudio sobre los efectos del estrés hídrico por sequía y el estrés por déficit moderado y severo de riego sobre el crecimiento y floración de la especie D. tenuifolia, así como sobre la atracción a polinizadores. Los resultados muestran que tanto el crecimiento y floración de D. tenuifolia como su atracción a polinizadores no se ven afectados si la falta de riego se produce durante un máximo de 4 días. Sin embargo, si la falta de riego se extiende a lo largo de 8 días o más, se observa una reducción significativa en el crecimiento vegetativo, el número de flores abiertas, el área total y el diámetro de dichas flores, así como en el diámetro y longitud del tubo de la corola. Por otro lado, el estudio pone de manifiesto que un déficit hídrico regulado permite una gestión eficiente del agua, la cual, dependiendo del objetivo final del cultivo de D. tenuifolia (para consumo o solo para atracción de polinizadores), puede reducir su consumo entre un 40 y un 70% sin afectar al crecimiento vegetativo y desarrollo floral, y sin reducir significativamente el atractivo a los polinizadores. Finalmente, esta tesis aborda un estudio para determinar cómo afecta el manejo de hábitat a la producción de los cultivos. En concreto, se ha planteado una experimentación que incluye márgenes mono-específicos y márgenes con una mezcla de especies atractivas a polinizadores, con el fin de determinar su efecto sobre la producción del cultivo de cilantro (C. sativum). La elección del cultivo de cilantro se debe a que requiere la polinización de insectos para su reproducción (aunque, en menor medida, puede polinizarse también por el viento), además de la facilidad para estimar su producción en condiciones semi-controladas de campo. El diseño experimental consistía en la siembra de márgenes mono-específicos de D. tenuifolia y márgenes con mezcla de seis especies anuales situados junto al cultivo de cilantro. Estos cultivos con márgenes florales fueron comparados con controles sin margen floral. Además, un segundo grupo de plantas de cilantro situadas junto a todos los tratamientos, cuyas flores fueron cubiertas para evitar su polinización, sirvió como control para evaluar la influencia de los polinizadores en la producción del cultivo. Los resultados muestran que la presencia de cualquiera de los dos tipos de margen floral mejora el peso y el porcentaje de germinación de las semillas de cilantro frente al control sin margen. Si se comparan los dos tipos de margen, se ha observado un mayor número de semillas de cilantro junto al margen con mezcla de especies florales respecto al margen mono-específico, probablemente debido al mayor número visitas de polinizadores. Puesto que el experimento se realizó en condiciones de campo semi-controladas, esto sugiere que las visitas de polinizadores fueron el factor determinante en los resultados. Por otro lado, los resultados apuntan a que la presencia de un margen floral (ya sea mono-especifico o de mezcla) en cultivos de pequeña escala puede aumentar la producción de cilantro en más de un 200%, al tiempo que contribuyen a la conservación de los polinizadores. ABSTRACT Habitat management, aimed to conserve pollinators in agro-ecosystems, requires selection of the most suitable plant species in terms of their attractiveness to pollinators and simplicity of agronomic management. However, since all flowers are not equally attractive to pollinators and many plant species can be weedy or invasive in the particular habitat, it is important to test which plant species are the most appropriate to be implemented in specific agro-ecosystems. For that reason, this PhD dissertation has been focused on determination of the most appropriate aromatic and herbaceous plants for conservation of pollinators in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain. Therefore, in a first approximation, spatial expansion (i.e. potential weediness) and attractiveness to pollinators of six aromatic perennial plants from the Lamiaceae family, native and frequent in the Mediterranean region, were evaluated. Preliminary plant selection was based on designing a functional mixed margins consisting of plants attractive to pollinators and with different blooming periods, in order to extend the availability of floral resources in the field. After a year of vegetative growth, the next two years the plant species were studied in a randomized block design experiment in order to estimate their attractiveness to pollinators in Central Spain and to investigate whether floral morphology and density affect attractiveness to pollinators. The final aim of the study was to evaluate how their phenology and attractiveness to pollinators can affect the functionality of a flowering mixture of these plants. In addition, the spatial expansion, i.e. potential weediness, of the selected plant species was estimated under field conditions, as the final purpose of the studied plants is to be implemented within agro-ecosystems. The results of the experiment showed that floral morphology did not affect the attractiveness of plants to pollinators, but floral density did, as plant species with higher floral density (i.e. Nepeta tuberosa and Hyssopus officinalis) showed significantly higher attractiveness to pollinators. In addition, of six plant species, two summer species (Melissa officinalis and Thymbra capitata) did not efficiently contribute to the attractiveness of the mixture to pollinators, which reduced its attractiveness during the summer period. Finally, as none of the plants showed weedy behaviour under field conditions, the attractive plant species, i.e. N. tuberosa, H. officinalis and the early spring flowering Salvia verbenaca, showed good potential to conserve the pollinators. Similarly, in a second approximation, the attractiveness to pollinators and agronomic behaviour of twelve herbaceous plants blooming in spring were studied. This experiment was conducted over two years in a randomized block design in order to evaluate attractiveness of preselected plant species to pollinators, as well as their attractiveness efficiency (a combination of duration of flowering and insect visitation), their response to two different agronomic management practices (growing in mixed vs. mono-specific plots; tillage vs. no-tillage), and their potential weediness. The results of this experiment showed that the flowers of Borago officinalis, Echium plantagineum, Phacelia tanacetifolia and Diplotaxis tenuifolia were attractive to bees, while Calendula arvensis, Coriandrum sativum, D. tenuifolia and Lobularia maritima were attractive to hoverflies. In addition, floral mixture resulted in lower attractiveness efficiency to pollinators than mono-specific D. tenuifolia, but higher than most of the mono-specific stands. On the other hand, although some of the most attractive plant species (e.g. P. tanacetifolia and C. arvensis) showed potential weediness, their self-seeding was reduced by tillage. After comparing attractiveness efficiency of various herbaceous species to pollinators and their potential weediness, the results indicated that D. tenuifolia showed the highest attractiveness efficiency to pollinators and efficient self-reproduction, making it highly recommended to attract bees and hoverflies in agro-ecosystems of Central Spain. In addition, this plant, commonly known as wild rocket, has a supplementary economic value as a commercialized crop. The implementation of a new floral margin in agro-ecosystems means increased production costs, especially in regions with frequent and long droughts (as it is Central and South-East area of Iberian Peninsula), where the principal agricultural cost is irrigation. Therefore, before recommending D. tenuifolia for sustainable habitat management within agro-ecosystems, it is necessary to study the effect of drought stress and moderate and severe deficit irrigation on its growth, flower development and attractiveness to pollinators. The results of this experiment showed that in greenhouse conditions, potted D. tenuifolia could be without irrigation for 4 days without affecting its growth, flowering and attractiveness to pollinators. However, lack of irrigation for 8 days or longer significantly reduced the vegetative growth, number of open flowers, total floral area, flower diameter, corolla tube diameter and corolla tube length of D. tenuifolia. This study showed that regulated deficit irrigation can improve water use efficiency, and depending on the purpose of growing D. tenuifolia, as a crop or as a beneficial plant to attract pollinators, it can reduce water consumption by 40% to 70% without affecting its vegetative and floral development and without reducing its attractiveness to pollinators. Finally, the following experiment was developed in order to understand how habitat management can influence on the agricultural production. For this purpose, it was evaluated if the vicinity of mixed and mono-specific field margins, preselected to conserve pollinators within agro-ecosystems, can improve seed production in coriander (C. sativum). The selection of this plant species for the experiment was based on its necessity for insect pollination for production of seeds (even though some pollen can be transmitted from one flower to another by wind) and the fact that under semi-controlled field conditions established in the field it is possible to estimate its total seed production. Since D. tenuifolia is attractive for both bees and hoverflies in Central Spain, the main objective of this experiment was to estimate the impact of two different types of field margins, i.e. mono-specific margin with D. tenuifolia and mixed margin with six herbaceous species, on the seed production of potted coriander. For that reason, it was tested: i) if open pollination (control without proximate field margin and treatments with nearby mono-specific and mixed margin) increases the seed production of coriander when compared with no-pollination (covered inflorescences of coriander) under field conditions; ii) if frequency of pollinator visitation to the flowers of coriander was higher in the presence of field margins than in the control without field margin; and iii) if seed production was higher in the presence of field margins than in control plants of coriander without field margin. The results showed that the proximity of both types of floral margins (mixed and mono-specific) improved the seed quality of coriander plants, as seed weight and germination rate were higher than in control plants without field margin. Furthermore, the number of seeds produced was significantly higher in coriander plants grown near mixed margins than near mono-specific margin, probably due to an increase in pollinator visits. Since the experiment was conducted under semi-controlled field conditions, it can be concluded that pollinator visits was the main factor that biased the results, and that presence of both mixed or mono-specific (D. tenuifolia) margins can improve the production of coriander for more than 200% in small-scale gardens and, in addition, conserve the local pollinators.

Integrated Studies for the Evaluation of Conservation Treatments on Stone Material from Archaeological Sites. Application to the Case of Merida (Spain)

The application of conservation treatments, such as consolidation and protection ones, has been demonstrated ineffective in many cases, and even harmful. Evaluation studies should be a mandatory task, ideally before and after the intervention, but both tasks are complex and unusual in the case of archaeological heritage. This study is mainly focused on analyzing changes in petrophysical properties of stone material from archaeological sites of Merida (Spain), evaluating, both on site and in laboratory, effects derived from different conservation treatments applied in past interventions, throughout the integration of different non-destructive techniques (NDT) and portable devices of analysis available at the Institute of Geosciences (CSIC,UCM). These techniques allow, not only assessment of effectiveness and alteration processes, but also monitoring durability of treatments, focused mainly on 1996 intervention in the case of Roman Theater, as well as different punctual interventions from the 90’s until date in the House of Mitreo. Studies carried out on archaeological sites of Merida permit us to compare outcomes and also check limitations in the use of those equipments. In this paper we discuss about the use of some techniques, their integration and limits, for the assessment of conservation treatments, showing some examples of Merida’s case study.

Census, reproductive biology, and germination of Astragalus gines-lopezii (Fabaceae),a narrow and endangered endemic species of SW Spain.

Astragalus gines-lopezii Talavera, Podlech, Devesa & F.M.Vazquez (Fabaceae) is a threatened endemic species with a distribution restricted to a very small area in Badajoz Province (Extremadura Region, SW Spain) and only 2 populations are known.This species was catalogued in the "Endangered" category in the 2008 Red List and the 2010 Threatened Spanish Vascular Flora List. Despite its status as an endangered species, at present very little is known about the distribution, census, and reproductive biology of this species. In this study we have carried out anexhaustive census of A. gines-lopezii, and we have evaluated the production of flowers, fruits, and seeds and the existence or not of intra- and interpopulation variability in seed germination. Results have highlighted the high reproductive capacity of this species on the basis of a high production of flowers, fruits, and seeds. Mechanical scarification of seeds was effective for increasing germination. Thus, initial germination (22%-60%) was increased to 97%-99% when seeds were rubbed with sandpapers. A high intra- and interpopulation variability in seed germination was found in this species. A. gines-lopezii produces seeds with different degrees of physical dormancy, varying this grade among different individuals within a population.

Comparative analysis for the assessment of restoration treatments on stone material from the roman theater of Merida (Spain)

The overall goal of the project is the study of effects of conservation treatments applied on stone material from archaeological sites, i n terms of superficial changes, effectiveness and durability. In this sense, one of the first premises is characterize the surface of the treated and untreated material in order to determine changes in physical and chemical properties.

Changes in Petrophysical Properties of the Stone Surface due to Past Conservation Treatments in Archaeological Sites of Merida (Spain)

Petrophysical properties, such as porosity, permeability, density or anisotropy de-termine the alterability of stone surfaces from archaeological sites, and therefore, the future preservation of the material. Others, like superficial roughness or color, may point out changes due to alteration processes, natural or man-induced, for ex-ample, by conservation treatments. The application of conservation treatments may vary some of these properties forcing the stone surface to a re-adaptation to the new conditions, which could generate new processes of deterioration. In this study changes resulting from the application of consolidating and hydrophobic treatments on stone materials from the Roman Theatre (marble and granite) and the Mitreo’s House (mural painting and mosaics), both archaeological sites from Merida (Spain), are analyzed. The use of portable field devices allows us to perform analyses both on site and in la-boratory, comparing treated and untreated samples. Treatments consisted of syn-thetic resins, consolidating (such as tetraethoxysilane TEOS) and hydrophobic products. Results confirm that undesirable changes may occur, with consequences ranging from purely aesthetic variations to physical, chemical and mechanical damages. This also permits us to check limitations in the use of these techniques for the evaluation of conservation treatments.

NDT for the detection and characterization of superficial treatments on stone material from archaeological sites of Merida (Spain)

Different treatments (consolidation and water-repellent) were applied on samples of marble and granite from the Front stage of the Roman Theatre of Merida (Spain). The main goal is to study the effects of these treatments on archaeological stone material, by analyzing the surface changes. X-Ray Fluorescence and Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy techniques, as well as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance have been used in order to study changes in the surface properties of the material, comparing treated and untreated specimens. The results confirm that silicon (Si) marker tracking allows the detection of applied treatments, increasing the peak signal in treated specimens. Furthermore, it is also possible to prove changes both within the pore system of the materialand in the distribution of surface water, resulting from the application of these products

A proposal for pellet production from residual woody biomass in the island of Majorca (Spain)

The use of residual biomass for energy purposes is of great interest in isolated areas like Majorca for waste reduction, energy sufficiency and renewable energies development. In addition, densification processes lead to easy-to-automate solid biofuels which additionally have higher energy density. The present study aims at (i) the estimation of the potential of residual biomass from woody crops as well as from agri-food and wood industries in Majorca, and (ii) the analysis of the optimal location of potential pellet plants by means of a GIS approach (location-allocation analysis) and a cost evaluation of the pellets production chain. The residual biomass potential from woody crops in Majorca Island was estimated at 35,874 metric tons dry matter (t DM) per year, while the wood and agri-food industries produced annually 21,494 t DM and 2717 t DM, respectively. Thus, there would be enough resource available for the installation of 10 pellet plants of 6400 t·year−1 capacity. These plants were optimally located throughout the island of Mallorca with a maximum threshold distance of 28 km for biomass transport from the production points. Values found for the biomass cost at the pellet plant ranged between 57.1 €·t−1 and 63.4 €·t−1 for biomass transport distance of 10 and 28 km. The cost of pelleting amounted to 56.7 €·t−1; adding the concepts of business fee, pellet transport and profit margin (15%), the total cost of pelleting was estimated at 116.6 €·t−1. The present study provides a proposal for pellet production from residual woody biomass that would supply up to 2.8% of the primary energy consumed by the domestic and services sector in the Balearic Islands.

Radon measurements in the cave houses of Crevillente (Spain)

This paper focuses on the cave houses of Crevillente (Spain) as a traditional housing experience which takes advantage of local environmental conditions through simple architectural proposals, paying particular attention to the presence of radon gas inside these underground constructions. Our aim is twofold: first, to analyse the architectural conditions of the different excavated typologies found in the municipality and second, to relate them to the existing radon gas levels after checking internal concentration by means of E-PERM® long-term devices placed inside the cave houses in 2011. The measurements corresponding to the main typologies in normal use conditions show that the highest values are 881.9 Bq/m3 in the cave typology, 484.1 Bq/m3 in the cave + attached constructions typology and 373.4 Bq/m3 in the cave + house typology, with geometric mean values of 572.1, 114.0 and 75.5 Bq/m3, respectively. It can be inferred from these results that cave house levels sometimes exceed those included in the 90/143/Euratom European Commission Recommendation on the protection of the public against indoor exposure to radon. The reason why cave houses are more susceptible to radon accumulation in their spaces lies in their direct and permanent contact with the ground where they are located.

Short-Term Effects of a Wildfire on the Endangered Dupont's Lark Chersophilus duponti in an Arid Shrub-Steppe of Central Spain

In Europe, Dupont’s Lark Chersophilus duponti is a threatened open-habitat bird. Prescribed burning has sometimes been proposed for its conservation, but without evidence of its effectiveness. To evaluate the short-term effects of a summer wildfire on this species, we performed several transect counts in the burnt and unburnt parts of a shrubsteppe in central Spain. The same transects were counted within a three-year interval prior to the fire and were repeated during the first two springs after the fire. We also measured the vegetation during the first two springs after the fire. In the burnt area, we observed a decrease of about 85–100% in Dupont’s Lark abundance, and about 7–15% in the control area. The disappearance of the scrub cover after fire and its slow regeneration, as well as the large increase in grass cover during the second year, may explain the decrease in this habitat-specialist bird species. Fire should be avoided in areas occupied by the Dupont’s Lark, as its negative effects in the short-term may cause local extinctions. However, prescribed burning may be used in neighboring areas to create new open habitats that may be subsequently colonized by this species.

The deterioration of Circular Mausoleum, Roman Necropolis of Carmona, Spain

The Circular Mausoleum tomb in the Roman Necropolis of Carmona was carved on a calcarenite sequence in an ancient quarry located in the town of Carmona, Southern Spain. This rock-cut tomb, representative of Roman burial practices, currently suffers from serious deterioration. A detailed survey over several years permitted the identification of the main tomb's pathologies and damaging processes, which include loss of material (scaling, flaking, granular disintegration), surface modifications (efflorescences, crusts and deposits) and extensive biological colonization. The results obtained in this study indicated that anthropogenic changes were largely responsible and enhanced the main alteration mechanisms observed in the Circular Mausoleum. Based on the deterioration diagnosis, effective corrective actions were proposed. This study shows that any conservative intervention in the interior of the tomb should be preceded by accurate in situ measurements and laboratory analyses to ascribe the source of the deterioration damages and thus designing effective treatments.

An approach for characterising the weathering behaviour of Flysch slopes applied to the carbonatic Flysch of Alicante (Spain)

Various studies indicate that most of the slope instabilities affecting Flysch heterogeneous rock masses are related to differential weathering of the lithologies that make up the slope. Therefore, the weathering characteristics of the intact rock are of great importance for the study of these types of slopes and their associated instability processes. The main aim of this study is to characterise the weathering properties of the different lithologies outcropping in the carbonatic Flysch of Alicante (Spain), in order to understand the effects of environmental weathering on them, following slope excavation. To this end, 151 strata samples obtained from 11 different slopes, 5–40 years old, were studied. The lithologies were identified and their mechanical characteristics obtained using field and laboratory tests. Additionally, the slaking properties of intact rocks were determined, and a classification system proposed based on the first and fifth slake cycles (Id1 and Id5 respectively) and an Index of Weathering (IW5), defined in the study. Information obtained from the laboratory and the field was used to characterise the weathering behaviour of the rocks. Furthermore, the slaking properties determined from laboratory tests were related to the in-situ weathering properties of rocks (i.e., the weathering profile, patterns and length, and weathering rate). The proposed relationship between laboratory test results, field data, and in-situ observations provides a useful tool for predicting the response of slopes to weathering after excavation during the preliminary stages of design.

Construction of 17-19th century domes in the province of Alicante (Spain): the case of San Juan Bautista in Cox

From the late seventeenth to early nineteenth centuries, many religious temples have been built in the province of Alicante (south east of Spain) with brick domes as their main characteristic feature. Often, the limited data available about these remarkable constructions make rehabilitation interventions become into real research projects, with a high value for their historic conservation over time. The aim of this paper is to show a detailed refurbishment analysis of a religious temple built in 1778, showing the need of preservation of historic buildings as a part of the architectural heritage by establishing a common pattern of materials, geometry and constructive systems, specifically in their domes. In most cases, there was not an architectural project for the construction, that is why the analysis of any documentary and archival sources available is essential to find different ways to proceed on the use and maintenance of these religious buildings.