O cultivo da soja no oeste do estado do Paraná: contribuição metodológica para a análise espaço-temporal

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Desenvolvimento de um aplicativo para processamento de imagens obtidas por fotografias aéreas

Pós-graduação em Agronomia (Energia na Agricultura) - FCA

Desenvolvimento de um aplicativo para processamento de imagens obtidas por fotografias aéreas

Pós-graduação em Agronomia (Energia na Agricultura) - FCA

Vegetation mapping in an area of Ombrophilous Dense Forest at Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar, São Paulo State, Brazil, and floristic composition of the tree component of some physiognomies*

This study aimed to map phytophysiognomies of an area of Ombrophilous Dense Forest at Parque Estadual da Serra do Mar and characterize their floristic composition. Photointerpretation of aerial photographs in scale of 1:35,000 was realized in association with field work. Thirteen physiognomies were mapped and they were classified as Montane Ombrophilous Dense Forest, Alluvial Ombrophilous Dense Forest or Secondary System. Three physiognomies identified at Casa de Pedra streamlet's basin were studied with more details. Riparian forest (RF), valley forest (VF), and hill forest (HF) presented some floristic distinction, as confirmed by Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) and Indicator Species Analysis (ISA) conducted here. Anthropic or natural disturbances and heterogeneity of environmental conditions may be the causes of physiognomic variation in the vegetation of the region. The results presented here may be useful to decisions related to management and conservation of Núcleo Santa Virgínia forests, in general.

Methodologische Untersuchungen zur Veränderung sahelischer Überschwemmungsgebiete mittels Fernerkundung - Fallbeispiel Nigerbinnendelta (Mali) -

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Langzeitbeobachtungsstudien zur Landschaftsdynamik inSahelländern stehen generell einem defizitären Angebot anquantitativen Rauminformationen gegenüber. Der in Malivorgefundene lokal- bis regionalräumliche Datenmangelführte zu einer methodologischen Studie, die die Entwicklungvon Verfahren zur multi-temporalen Erfassung und Analyse vonLandschaftsveränderungsdaten beinhaltet. Für den RaumWestafrika existiert in großer Flächenüberdeckunghistorisches Fernerkundungsmaterial in Form hochauflösenderLuftbilder ab den 50er Jahren und erste erdbeobachtendeSatellitendaten von Landsat-MSS ab den 70er Jahren.Multitemporale Langzeitanalysen verlangen zur digitalenReproduzierbarkeit, zur Datenvergleich- undObjekterfaßbarkeit die a priori-Betrachtung derDatenbeschaffenheit und -qualität. Zwei, ohne verfügbare, noch rekonstruierbareBodenkontrolldaten entwickelte Methodenansätze zeigen nichtnur die Möglichkeiten, sondern auch die Grenzen eindeutigerradiometrischer und morphometrischerBildinformationsgewinnung. Innerhalb desÜberschwemmungsgunstraums des Nigerbinnendeltas im ZentrumMalis stellen sich zwei Teilstudien zur Extraktion vonquantitativen Sahelvegetationsdaten den radiometrischen undatmosphärischen Problemen:1. Präprozessierende Homogenisierung von multitemporalenMSS-Archivdaten mit Simulationen zur Wirksamkeitatmosphärischer und sensorbedingter Effekte2. Entwicklung einer Methode zur semi-automatischenErfassung und Quantifizierung der Dynamik derGehölzbedeckungsdichte auf panchromatischenArchiv-Luftbildern Die erste Teilstudie stellt historischeLandsat-MSS-Satellitenbilddaten für multi-temporale Analysender Landschaftsdynamik als unbrauchbar heraus. In derzweiten Teilstudie wird der eigens, mittelsmorphomathematischer Filteroperationen für die automatischeMusterkennung und Quantifizierung von Sahelgehölzobjektenentwickelte Methodenansatz präsentiert. Abschließend wird die Forderung nach kosten- undzeiteffizienten Methodenstandards hinsichtlich ihrerRepräsentativität für die Langzeitbeobachtung desRessourceninventars semi-arider Räume sowie deroperationellen Transferierbarkeit auf Datenmaterial modernerFernerkundungssensoren diskutiert.

Reconstruction of Etna recent flank eruptions for assessing diversion barrier project

The thesis contributed to the volcanic hazard assessment through the reconstruction of some historical flank eruptions of Etna in order to obtain quantitative data (volumes, effusion rates, etc.) for characterizing the recent effusive activity, quantifying the impact on the territory and defining mitigation actions for reducing the volcanic risk as for example containment barriers. The reconstruction was based on a quantitative approach using data extracted from aerial photographs and topographic maps. The approach allows to obtain the temporal evolution of the lava flow field and estimating the Time Average Discharge Rate (TADR) by dividing the volume emplaced over a given time interval for the corresponding duration. The analysis concerned the 2001, 1981 and 1928 Etna eruptions. The choice of these events is linked to their impact on inhabited areas. The results of the analysis showed an extraordinarily high effusion rate for the 1981 and 1928 eruptions (over 600 m^3/s), unusual for Etna eruptions. For the 1981 Etna eruption an eruptive model was proposed to explain the high discharge rate. The obtained TADRs were used as input data for simulations of the propagation of the lava flows for evaluating different scenarios of volcanic hazard and analyse different mitigation actions against lava flow invasion. It was experienced how numerical simulations could be adopted for evaluating the effectiveness of barrier construction and for supporting their optimal design. In particular, the gabions were proposed as an improvement for the construction of barriers with respect to the earthen barriers. The gabion barriers allow to create easily modular structures reducing the handled volumes and the intervention time. For evaluating operational constrain an experimental test was carried out to test the filling of the gabions with volcanic rock and evaluating their deformation during transport and placement.

Lava discharge rate estimates from thermal infrared satellite data at Pacaya Volcano, Guatemala

Time-averaged discharge rates (TADR) were calculated for five lava flows at Pacaya Volcano (Guatemala), using an adapted version of a previously developed satellite-based model. Imagery acquired during periods of effusive activity between the years 2000 and 2010 were obtained from two sensors of differing temporal and spatial resolutions; the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) Imager. A total of 2873 MODIS and 2642 GOES images were searched manually for volcanic “hot spots”. It was found that MODIS imagery, with superior spatial resolution, produced better results than GOES imagery, so only MODIS data were used for quantitative analyses. Spectral radiances were transformed into TADR via two methods; first, by best-fitting some of the parameters (i.e. density, vesicularity, crystal content, temperature change) of the TADR estimation model to match flow volumes previously estimated from ground surveys and aerial photographs, and second by measuring those parameters from lava samples to make independent estimates. A relatively stable relationship was defined using the second method, which suggests the possibility of estimating lava discharge rates in near-real-time during future volcanic crises at Pacaya.

A STUDY OF THE IMPACTS OF FREEZE-THAW ON CLIFF RECESSION AT THE CALVERT CLIFFS IN CALVERT COUNTY, MARYLAND

The Calvert Cliffs, which form much of the western coastline of the Chesapeake Bay in Calvert County, Maryland, are actively eroding and destabilizing, resulting in a critical situation for many homes in close proximity to the slope's crest. Past studies have identified that where waves directly interact with the toe of the slope, wave action controls cliff recession; however, where waves do not regularly interact with the slope toe, the past work identified that freeze-thaw controls recession. This study investigated the validity of this second claim by analyzing the recession rate and freeze-thaw behavior of six study sites along the Calvert Cliffs that are not directly affected by waves. While waves do remove failed material from the toe, in these regions freeze-thaw is believed to be the dominant factor driving recession at the Calvert Cliffs. Past recession rates were calculated using historical aerial photographs and were analyzed together with a number of other variables selected to represent the freeze-thaw behavior of the Calvert Cliffs. The investigation studied sixteen independent variables and found that over 65% of recession at these study sites can be represented by the following five variables: (1) cliff face direction, (2 and 3) the percent of total cliff height composed of soil with freeze-thaw susceptibility F4 and F2, (4) the number of freeze-thaw cycles, and (5) the weighted shear strength. Future mitigation techniques at these sites should focus on addressing these variables and might include vegetation or addressing the presence of water along the face of the slope. Unmitigated, the Calvert Cliffs will continue to recede until a stable slope angle is reached and maintained.

Relating Crevassing to Non-Linear Strain in the Floating Part of Jakobshavn Isbrae, West Greenland

Jakobshavn Isbrae is a major ice stream that drains the west-central Greenland ice sheet and becomes afloat in Jakobshavn Isfiord (69degreesN, 49degreesW), where it has maintained the world's fastest-known sustained velocity and calving rate (7 km a(-1)) for at least four decades. The floating portion is approximately 12 km long and 6 km wide. Surface elevations and motion vectors were determined photogrammetrically for about 500 crevasses on the floating ice, and adjacent grounded ice, using aerial photographs obtained 2 weeks apart in July 1985. Surface strain rates were computed from a mesh of 399 quadrilateral elements having velocity measurements at each corner. It is shown that heavy crevassing of floating ice invalidates the assumptions of linear strain theory that (i) surface strain in the floating ice is homogeneous in both space and time, (ii) the squares and products of strain components are nil, and (iii) first- and second-order rotation components are small compared to strain components. Therefore, strain rates and rotation rates were also computed using non-linear strain theory. The percentage difference between computed linear and non-linear second invariants of strain rate per element were greatest (mostly in the range 40-70%) where crevassing is greatest. Isopleths of strain rate parallel and transverse to flow and elevation isopleths relate crevassing to known and inferred pinning points.

Pond-Breeding Amphibian Species Distributions in a Beaver-Modified Landscape, Acadia National Park, Mount Desert Island, Maine

In order to maintain pond-breeding amphibian species richness, it is important to understand how both natural and anthropogenic disturbances affect species assemblages and individual species distributions both at the scale of individual ponds and at a larger landscape scale. The goal of this project was to investigate what characteristics of ponds and the surrounding wetland landscape were most effective in predicting pond-breeding species richness and the individual occurrence of wood frog (Rana sylvatica), bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) and pickerel frog (Rana palustris) breeding sites in a beaver-modified landscape and how this landscape has changed over time. The wetland landscape of Acadia National Park was historically modified by the natural disturbance cycles of beaver (Castor cazadensis), and since their reintroduction to the island in 1921, beaver have played a large role in creating and maintaining palustrine wetlands. In 2000 and 2001, I studied pond-breeding amphibian assemblages at 71 palustrine wetlands in Acadia National Park, Mount Desert Island, Maine. I determined breeding presence of 7 amphibian species and quantified 15 variables describing local pond conditions and characteristics of the wetland landscape. I developed a priori models to predict sites with high amphibian species and used model selection with Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) to identify important variables. Single species models were also developed to predict wood frog, bullfrog and pickerel frogs breeding presence. The variables for wetland connectivity by stream corridors and the presence of beaver disturbance were the most effective variables to predict sites with high amphibian richness. Wood frog breeding was best predicted by local scale variables describing temporary, fishless wetlands and the absence of active beaver disturbance. Abandoned beaver sites provided wood frog breeding habitat (70%) in a similar proportion to that found in non beaver-influenced sites (79%). In contrast, bullfrog breeding presence was limited to active beaver wetlands with fish and permanent water, and 80% of breeding sites were large (≥2ha in size). Pickerel frog breeding site selection was predicted best by the connectivity of sites in the landscape by stream corridors. Models including the presence of beaver disturbance, greater wetland perimeter and greater depth were included in the confidence set of pickerel frog models but showed considerably less support. Analysis of historic aerial photographs showed an 89% increase in the total number of ponded wetlands available in the landscape between the years of 1944 and 1997. Beaver colonization generally converted forested wetlands and riparian areas to open water and emergent wetlands. Temporal colonization of beaver wetlands favored large sites low in the watersheds and sites that were impounded later were generally smaller, higher in the watershed, and more likely to be abandoned. These results suggest that beaver have not only increased the number of available breeding sites in the landscape for pond-breeding amphibians, but the resulting mosaic of active and abandoned beaver wetlands also provides suitable breeding habitat for species with differing habitat requirements.

Gletscherstände des Vernagtferner 1889-1969

The Vernagtferner in the Ötztaler Alps (Tirol) has been mapped after terrestrial-photogrammetric surveying by Sebastian Finsterwalder in 1889, Otto von Gruber in 1912, and Heinrich Schatz in 1938. The new, four-colored map in the scale 1: 10.000 enclosed in this issue was composed from aerial photographs of 1969. It was conceived as topographicaI map with additional geodetic and glaciological content. The methods of survey are explained and the means of cartographic representation are discussed.

Cambio de uso del suelo en los geosistemas de la cuenca costera del río Boroa (Chile) entre 1994 y 2004

Se analizaron los principales cambios de uso del suelo en las unidades de paisaje (geosistemas) de la cuenca hidrográfica del río Boroa entre 1994 y 2004. Para ello se planteó la hipótesis de que los cambios en la estructura del paisaje han sido conducidos fundamentalmente por acción antrópica generando importantes alteraciones en el paisaje ecológico. Se utilizaron mapas categóricos de uso/cobertura de suelo elaborados con material cartográfico y fotografías aéreas con su posterior corrección en terreno, información que fue complementada con el análisis geomorfológico y de unidades ambientales de la cuenca. Se comprobó una fuerte variación en la superficie de plantaciones forestales (principalmente Eucalyptus spp.), con una tasa de incremento anual que varió entre 3,2 y 28%, asociado principalmente a reconversión de uso y ocupación de cordones montañosos metamórficos. A su vez, se constató la expansión de zonas de humedales en terrenos anegadizos de llanuras, todo lo cual ha reducido la superficie total con destino agrícola en 61%, transformando el paisaje en un periodo de sólo diez años. Estos cambios se discuten sobre la base de una combinación de factores económicos, legales y ambientales, concluyendo que el factor humano ha sido el principal responsable de la conducción de los cambios de uso del suelo en la cuenca del río Boroa.

Tab. 2: Grain-sizes of cobble on the surface of sanderwurzel

yResults of 13 field investigations between 1966 and 1990 of the southwestern to eastern margin of Kötlujökull and its proglacial area are summarized with respect to sandar and their formation. Generally, the results are based on sedimentological examinations in the field and laboratory, on analyses of aerial photographs, and investigations of the glacier slope. The methods permitted a more detailed reconstruction of sandar evolution in the proglacial area of Kötlujökull since 1945, of tendencies in development and of single data going back until the last decades of the 19th century. Accordingly, there existed special periods of "flachsander"-formations with raised coarsegrained "sanderwurzels" resultant from the outbreak of subglacial meltwater tunneloutlets and other periods with "hochsander-"formations by supraglacial drainage. At present the belts of hochsanders in front of the glacier come up to more than 4 m in thickness and 1000 m in width, therefore containing perhaps more sediment direct in front of Kötlujökull than the old belts of flachsanderwurzels. In one case the explosion-like subglacial meltwater outburst combined with the genesis of a sanderwurzel could be observed for a time and is thoroughly discussed. The event is referred to the outburst of a sub- to inglacial meltwater body being under extreme hydrostatic press ures which is combined with the genesis of a new subglacial tunneloutlet as a new flachsander. Often these outbursts led to the destruction of a morainic belt more than 1000 m in width. Presumably the whole event was finished in not more than a few days. In addition to a characteristic pear-shaped form and water-moved stones up to diameters of 1 m the wurzels possess a single "main-channel" with rectangular cross-sections as far as 4 m deep and 50 m wide just as small flat channels resembling fish bones in connection with the main channel. Presumably, they have been active only in the last stage of wurzel formation. With regard to the subglacial tunnel gates long-living L-meltwater outlets are distinguished from short-living K-meltwater outlets. These are always combined with a raised coarse-grained sanderwurzel, but its meltwater discharge is generally decreasing and ceases after some years, whereas the discharge of L-meltwater outlets continues unchanged for long times (except seasonal differences). The material of flachsanders is preponderantly composed of mugearitic and andesitic cobble extending at least for some kilometres from the glacier margin, whereas the hochsanders correspond to medium to coarse sands without clay and without alternations into the direction of flow. The hochsander fans are covered with small braidet channels. Their sedimentary structures are determined by the short time changing of supraglacial meltwater discharge and the upper flow regime combined with the development of antidunes, which rule the channel-flows during the main activity periods in summer. Unlike the subglacial drainage the supraglacial drainage led to only weak effects of erosion on the glacier foreland. So the hochsanders refilled depressions of morainic areas or grew up on older flachsanderwurzels. Whereas all large flachsanders developed in front of approximate stationary glacier margins, the evolution of coherent belts of hochsanders were combined with progressive glacier fronts. On the other hand, there was obviously no evolution at all of large sandar in front of back-melting margins of Kötlujökull. Based on examinations of the glacier surface and on analyses of aerial photographs the different types of sandar are referred to different structures of the glacier snout. Finally chances of surviving of sandar in the proglacial area of Kötlujökull are shortly discussed just as the possibility of an application of the Islandic research results on Pleistocene sandar in northern Germany.

Orthophotokarte Vernagtferner 1979 in jpg-Format (54 MB)

For the production of the orthophoto map Vernagtferner 1979, scale I: 10000, photographs of the flight "Hintereisferner 1979" were used, which have been found to be very suitable for differential rectification. Control points were determined before the flight took place. The processing of nine stereopairs was carried out on an analytical plotter. Simultaneously with the on-line plotting of the contour lines the reference data for the computation of the profiles for the differential rectification were recorded. The orthophoto map was covered by four aerial photographs. A smooth data transfer was ensured because the same computer was used for the data acquisition and the differential rectification. Two printing originals were prepared, one for the outline drawings with contour lines and another for the orthophoto. The print was done in black for the two copies. The data acquisition, the computation of the scanning profiles for the othoprojector and the procedure of the differential rectification are described. The reason for the use of on-line drawn contour lines is explained. Further applications, also for digital contour lines, are introduced. Possibilities for the achievement of high photo quality during the reproduction are discussed.

Table 1: Glacier measurements from air photos 1969 and landsat images 1972 and 1973

The extent of snow cover at the end of the ablation season on glaciers in the Tyrolean Alps in 1972 and 1973 was determined from Landsat-1 Multispectral Scanner (MSS) images. For snovv mapping the MSS-images with a ground resolution of 80 meters were enlarged to a scale of 1: 100.000 by photographic methods. Different appearance of snow cover in the 4 MSS-channels is discussed in connection with ground truth control. The accuracy of snow and ice mapping from Landsat images was checked on 15 glaciers with an area from 1 to 10 km2 by aerial photography and/or ground truth control. These comparisons imply the usefulness of Landsat images for snow mapping on glaciers of a few square kilometers. The altitude of the equilibrium line was determined from Landsat images for 53 glaciers in the Tyrolean Alps. The regional differences in the equilibrium line altitude correspond to the regional precipitation patterns. The equilibrium line was identical with the snow line at the end of the budget year 1971/1972; therefore it was possible to determine the equilibrium line from satellite images. For 1968/69 the equilibrium line was mapped from aerial photographs for several glaciers. In 1972/73 mass balance was strongly negative and the equilibrimn line was within the firn area of the glaciers. Therefore it was not possible to distinguish between accumulation and ablation areas from the Landsat images of September 1973; however, snow and ice areas could be olearly differentiated. The ratios of accumulation area 01' snow area to the total area of the glaciers were determineel from satellite images and aerial photography separately for aelvancing anel for retreating glaciers and were relateel to the mass balance. In the budget years 1968/69 and 1972/73 with negative mass balance the accumulation area ratios of the advancing glacien; were olearly different from the ratios of the retreating glaciers, in 1971/72 with positive 01' balanced mass budget the differences between advancing and retreating glaciers were not significant.