Mechanical behavior of rock joints: influence of joint roughness on its closure and shear behavior

En esta tesis se estudia la fricción en juntas rocosas utilizando el Método de Elementos Discretos (DEM). En particular, se estudia la influencia de la rugosidad de las superficies de la junta, la elasticidad, la fractura, y el nivel de carga de compresión sobre el comportamiento de cierre y de cizalla de las juntas rocosas. Por primera vez la rugosidad de las juntas considerada como auto-afín es utilizada para estudiar la fricción de juntas rocosas, la rugosidad se describe mediante tres parámetros: el exponente de rugosidad, la longitud de correlación auto-afín y la varianza de alturas. Mediante un algoritmo de computadora basado en métodos espectrales, ocho superficies autoafines isotrópicas con diferente rugosidad fueron creadas. Posteriormente, las ocho superficies fueron utilizadas como moldes para generar las juntas utilizando elementos discretos. Antes de realizar las simulaciones de compresión y cizallaura, se calibraron las propiedades elásticas y de fractura (criterio de fractura elíptico basado en esfuerzos) de las juntas numéricas a los datos experimentales (obtenidos previamente) de unas muestras de mortero mediante la utilización de un volumen elemental representativo (REV). Una vez que las propiedades mecánicas de las juntas se obtuvieron mediante la calibración del REV, se realizaron las pruebas de cierre (prueba de compresión) de las ocho juntas DEM. Se utilizaron dos niveles de esfuerzo de compresión para las pruebas de cierre: 14 MPa y 21 MPa. Después, las ocho juntas DEM fueron cizalladas en dos direcciones mutuamente perpendiculares. Para cada dirección de cizalla y cada nivel de esfuerzo de compresión (14 y 21 MPa), las juntas fueron cizalladas usando uno de los tres modelos mecánicos siguientes: 1) un modelo rígido, en el que las juntas no se pueden deformar, excepto en su superficie, 2) un modelo puramente elástico, en el que las juntas se pueden deformar en todo su volumen y 3) un modelo elástico con fractura en el que las juntas se pueden deformar en su volumen y, si el esfuerzo sobre las uniones entre partículas excede cierto nivel de esfuerzo máximo, las uniones se rompen de una manera irreversible. El uso de estos tres modelos mecánicos nos permitirá estudiar de manera sistemática: la influencia de la rugosidad (modelo rígido), la influencia de la elasticidad y rugosidad (modelo puramente elástico) y, finalmente, el efecto combinado de la rugosidad de las juntas, la elasticidad y la fractura (modelo elástico con fractura). El estudio de los resultados obtenidos de las simulaciones DEM es seguido por una análisis energético el cual permite estudiar la evolución de los diferentes tipos de energía en función del desplazamiento de cizalla: energía elástica almacenada en el sistema, energía de fricción entre elementos discretos, el trabajo relacionado con la dilatación de la junta y la energía disipada por el amortiguamiento interno del DEM.

A new approach for semi-automatic rock mass joints recognition from 3D point clouds

Rock mass characterization requires a deep geometric understanding of the discontinuity sets affecting rock exposures. Recent advances in Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) instrumentation currently allow quick and accurate 3D data acquisition, yielding on the development of new methodologies for the automatic characterization of rock mass discontinuities. This paper presents a methodology for the identification and analysis of flat surfaces outcropping in a rocky slope using the 3D data obtained with LiDAR. This method identifies and defines the algebraic equations of the different planes of the rock slope surface by applying an analysis based on a neighbouring points coplanarity test, finding principal orientations by Kernel Density Estimation and identifying clusters by the Density-Based Scan Algorithm with Noise. Different sources of information —synthetic and 3D scanned data— were employed, performing a complete sensitivity analysis of the parameters in order to identify the optimal value of the variables of the proposed method. In addition, raw source files and obtained results are freely provided in order to allow to a more straightforward method comparison aiming to a more reproducible research.

Physical and mechanical characterization of a recycled polypropylene and wood flour without additives

Recycled polymer matrix composites reinforced with wood flour can be a viable alternative for the replacement of wood and virgin polymers in materials used in floors, door frames, windows and external cladding. The objective of this research was to determine some physical and mechanical parameters of composite made with Pinus taeda and elliottii wood flour (WF) and recycled polypropylene (PP), without the use of compatibilizers or additives. The composites were separated into four traits, namely 100% PP, 90% PP with 10%, WF 80% PP with 20% WF and 70 % PP with 30% WF. The characterization of the composite followed the standards ASTM D-638-10, ASTM D256-00, ASTM D570 -98, ASTM D1238 -10 and ASTM G 155-05, it was also employed the surface analysis by scanning electron microscopy. The dimensional stability tests showed satisfactory results. Even the composite with a higher percentage of wood flour (30%) had a flow index of 10 MFI, considered compatible with that observed for PP (polypropylene) virgin by standard ASTM D 1238-10. The inclusion of wood flour (FM) afforded composites with good mechanical characteristics which can be applied in manufacture of different materials, specifically employed outdoors.

Abordagem prática para execução de taludes em obras rodoviárias com recurso a pré‐corte

Este trabalho é realizado no domínio das obras de engenharia, área onde o desmonte de rocha com recurso a explosivos em obras rodoviárias é uma actividade específica e consistiu no acompanhamento e execução de três obras rodoviárias de média e grande dimensão. A necessidade de executar escavações, recorrendo a técnicas de desmonte cuidadoso de contorno, onde o plano de corte do talude final deve obedecer a requisitos de localização, alinhamento, inclinação, estabilidade e também estéticos, acrescendo a isto a necessidade de optimizar os meios envolvidos, obriga a que esta actividade seja encarada de uma forma sistematizada, visando o racional aproveitamento de recursos. A execução desta actividade requer conhecimentos no domínio das técnicas de desmonte de contorno, dos explosivos, do mecanismo de rotura de rochas, da operação de perfuração e da geomecânica dos maciços. A abordagem deste trabalho incide sobre a técnica denominada de pré‐corte e tem como objectivo encontrar uma equação característica que permita relacionar diferentes parâmetros envolvidos nesta actividade. Este objectivo é alcançado recorrendo à correlação entre equações relativas à pressão de detonação, à pressão no furo e ao espaçamento entre furos consecutivos, desenvolvidas por outros autores. Desta forma obteve‐se uma equação que relaciona parâmetros relativos ao maciço rochoso (resistência à tracção), ao explosivo (velocidade de detonação e densidade) e ao diagrama de fogo (concentração de carga – volume de explosivo e comprimento do furo – volume do furo). A comparação entre os valores destes parâmetros obtidos na produção e os obtidos com recurso à equação característica permite concluir que a sua aplicação para execução de futuras obras possibilita uma optimização dos meios envolvidos.

Influência dos parâmetros geotécnicos na qualidade do desmonte de maciços rochosos fracturados

Uma das operações envolvidas no desmonte de maciços rochosos é a perfuração. A forma como esta é executada é determinante para o sucesso do desmonte. Quando realizada correctamente o desmonte produz uma boa fragmentação, reduzindo a sobrescavação. Assim, a correcta escolha das ferramentas de perfuração assume um papel preponderante para os custos do desmonte em maciço rochosos. Esta dissertação irá centrar-se nos parâmetros Geológicos, Geotécnicos e Geomecânicos e nos desvios de perfuração. O objectivo geral deste trabalho é perceber a interdependência dos parâmetros geológicogeotécnicos e geomecânicos do maciço rochoso com os desvios de perfuração, bem como estudar os ângulos de intersecção entre os furos e as descontinuidades que originam o desvio. O estudo dos parâmetros do maciço rochoso aliado a uma perfuração alinhada é salientado com o intuito de uma abordagem de geoengenharia integrada dos maciços rochosos.

Optimização do processo de perfuração em maciços rochosos: consequências técnico-económicas

Este estudo centra-se na temática da perfuração de maciços rochosos. A perfuração, dependendo do seu objectivo, diâmetro e comprimento, tem um vasto leque de aplicações incluindo a perfuração para o desmonte com explosivos e colocação de elementos de contenção. Este estudo esta focado na perfuração, tendo normalmente um papel preponderante no rendimento dos ciclos de trabalho em que esta inserida. O processo de perfuração implica uma estreita interacção das ferramentas de perfuração com maciço rochoso a perfurar, como tal um conhecimento rigoroso dos parâmetros geológicos, geotécnicos, geomecânicos do maciço rochoso e preponderante para auxiliar a gestão, do ponto de vista técnico-económico, da operação de perfuração. Este estudo tem como principal objectivo a optimização técnico-económica desta operação através da introdução de processos baseados nas boas práticas de engenharia na perfuração de maciços rochosos, nomeadamente a definição e introdução do processo de afiação dos bits no ciclo de perfuração. Na caracterização do maciço rochoso, para além da pesquisa e recolha bibliográfica pretende-se recorrer a ensaios ”in situ” e laboratoriais que permitam obter informacao útil para a avaliação da perfurabilidade e abrasividade do maciço rochoso.

Characterization of rock slopes through slope mass rating using 3D point clouds

Rock mass classification systems are widely used tools for assessing the stability of rock slopes. Their calculation requires the prior quantification of several parameters during conventional fieldwork campaigns, such as the orientation of the discontinuity sets, the main properties of the existing discontinuities and the geo-mechanical characterization of the intact rock mass, which can be time-consuming and an often risky task. Conversely, the use of relatively new remote sensing data for modelling the rock mass surface by means of 3D point clouds is changing the current investigation strategies in different rock slope engineering applications. In this paper, the main practical issues affecting the application of Slope Mass Rating (SMR) for the characterization of rock slopes from 3D point clouds are reviewed, using three case studies from an end-user point of view. To this end, the SMR adjustment factors, which were calculated from different sources of information and processes, using the different softwares, are compared with those calculated using conventional fieldwork data. In the presented analysis, special attention is paid to the differences between the SMR indexes derived from the 3D point cloud and conventional field work approaches, the main factors that determine the quality of the data and some recognized practical issues. Finally, the reliability of Slope Mass Rating for the characterization of rocky slopes is highlighted.

Temperature influence on the physical and mechanical properties of a porous rock: San Julian's calcarenite

This work discusses the results from tests which were performed in order to study the effect of high temperatures in the physical and mechanical properties of a calcarenite (San Julian's stone). Samples, previously heated at different temperatures (from 105 °C to 600 °C), were tested. Non-destructive tests (porosity and ultrasonic wave propagation) and destructive tests (uniaxial compressive strength and slake durability test) were performed over available samples. Furthermore, the tests were carried out under different conditions (i.e. air-cooled and water-cooled) in order to study the effect of the fire off method. The results show that uniaxial compressive strength and elastic parameters (i.e. elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio), decrease as the temperature increases for the tested range of temperatures. A reduction of the uniaxial compressive strength up to 35% and 50% is observed in air-cooled and water-cooled samples respectively when the samples are heated to 600 °C. Regarding the Young's modulus, a fall over 75% and 78% in air-cooled and water-cooled samples respectively is observed. Poisson's ratio also declines up to 44% and 68% with the temperature in air-cooled and water-cooled samples respectively. Slake durability index also exhibits a reduction with temperature. Other physical properties, closely related with the mechanical properties of the stone, are porosity, attenuation and propagation velocity of ultrasonic waves in the material. All exhibit considerable changes with temperature.

Evaluation of rock mechanical behaviors under uniaxial compression with reference to assessed weathering grades

A weathering classification for granitic rock materials from southeastern Brazil was framed based on core characteristics. The classification was substantiated by a detailed petrographic study. Indirect assessment of weathering grades by density, ultrasonic and Schmidt hammer index tests was performed. Rebound values due to Schmidt hammer multiple impacts at one representative point were more efficient in predicting weathering grades than averaged single impact rebound values, P-wave velocities and densities. Uniaxial compression tests revealed that a large range of uniaxial compressive strength (214-153 MPa) exists in Grade I category where weathering does not seem to have played any role. It was concluded that variability in occurrences of quartz intragranular cracks and in biotite percentage, distribution and orientation might have played a key role in accelerating or decelerating the failure processes of the Grade I specimens. Deterioration of uniaxial compressive strength and elastic modulus and increase in Poisson`s ratio with increasing weathering intensity could be attributed to alteration of minerals, disruption of rock skeleton and microcrack augmentation. A crude relation between failure modes and weathering grades also emerged.

Effect of impeller type and mechanical agitation on the mass transfer and power consumption aspects of ASBR operation treating synthetic wastewater

The effect of flow type and rotor speed was investigated in a round-bottom reactor with 5 L useful volume containing 2.0 L of granular biomass. The reactor treated 2.0 L of synthetic wastewater with a concentration of 800 mgCOD/L in 8-h cycles at 30 degrees C. Five impellers, commonly used in biological processes, have been employed to this end, namely: a turbine and a paddle impeller with six-vertical-flat-blades, a turbine and a paddle impeller with six-45 degrees-inclined-flat-blades and a three-blade-helix impeller. Results showed that altering impeller type and rotor speed did not significantly affect system stability and performance. Average organic matter removal efficiency was about 84% for filtered samples, total volatile acids concentration was below 20 mgHAc/L and bicarbonate alkalinity a little less than 400 mgCaCO(3)/L for most of the investigated conditions. However, analysis of the first-order kinetic model constants showed that alteration in rotor speed resulted in an increase in the values of the kinetic constants (for instance, from 0.57 h(-1) at 50 rpm to 0.84 h(-1) at 75 rpm when the paddle impeller with six-45 degrees-inclined-flat-blades was used) and that axial flow in mechanically stirred reactors is preferable over radial-flow when the vertical-flat-blade impeller is compared to the inclined-flat-blade impeller (for instance at 75 rpm, from 0.52 h(-1) with the six-flat-blade-paddle impeller to 0.84 h(-1) with the six-45 degrees-inclined-flat-blade-paddle impeller), demonstrating that there is a rotor speed and an impeller type that maximize solid-liquid mass transfer in the reaction medium. Furthermore, power consumption studies in this reduced reactor volume showed that no high power transfer is required to improve mass transfer (less than 0.6 kW/10(3) m(3)). (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Thermoplastic starch modified during melt processing with organic acids: The effect of molar mass on thermal and mechanical properties

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) was modified with ascorbic acid and citric acid by melt processing of native starch with glycerol as plasticizer in an intensive batch mixer at 160 degrees C. It was found that the molar mass decreases with acid content and processing time causing the reduction in melting temperature (T(m)). As observed by the results of X-ray diffraction and DSC measurements, crystallinity was not changed by the reaction with organic acids. T(m) depression with falling molar mass was interpreted on the basis of the effect of concentration of end-chain units, which act as diluents. FTIR did not show any appreciable change in starch chemical compositions, leading to the conclusion that the main changes observed were produced by the variation in molar mass of the material. We demonstrated that it is possible to decrease melt viscosity without the need for more plasticizer thus avoiding side-effects such as an increase in water affinity or relevant changes in the dynamic mechanical properties. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.