Ilman epäpuhtauksien vaikutuksesta maaperään ja pohjaveteen Tampereen ja Kuusankosken ympäristössä

Engl. summary: On the influence of air pollution on soil and groundwater in the Tampere and Kuusankoski regions

Olen maa johon tahdot : Timo K. Mukan maailmankuvan poetiikkaa

The dissertation deals with the prose texts of the Finnish writer Timo K. Mukka, renowned for his depictions of his native Lapland. This research concerns the creation of world view in Mukka s prose, which is approached by studying what Mikhail Bakhtin calls generic change. Such genre change is the most characteristic feature of Mukka s prose. His prose is permeated with two genres in particular and changes between them: the ballad-like, archaistic and romantic prose-poem style and naturalistic, even grotesque expressions. In addition, these genres are associated with sublime and grotesque styles so that generic change tends to involve also stylistic changes in Mukka s prose. This study probes the tension-filled interrelationships between the ballad and naturalistic prose by examining the discourse of Mukka s characters. It is shown that these characters invariably find themselves in what Bakhtin calls the chronotope of the threshold; that is, the plots of Mukka s novels and short stories depict situations in which the characters are faced with decisions and deeds that will profoundly impact their lives. The discourse of the threshold affects the characters speech by filling it with dialogical dimensions. This makes their communication ethically loaded and polyphonic. This study is based on Mikhail Bakhtin s theory of the novel and international Bakhtin s studies. I also take into consideration the theoretical developments of Bakhtin s work; for example, the concept of ressentiment, adapted from the Bakhtin scholar Michel André Bernstein, plays an important role. In order to explicate on the psychology of Mukka s characters such as melancholy, abjection, sadism, and taboo I use the concepts familiar from Freudian psychoanalysis. The corpus of my research consists of the following texts: the long prose texts Maa on syntinen laulu. Balladi (1964), Tabu (1965), Täältä jostakin. Romaani (1965), Laulu Sipirjan lapsista. Romaani (1966), Ja kesän heinä kuolee. Kertomus sairaudesta (1968) ja Kyyhky ja unikko (1970) and the short story collections Koiran kuolema (1967) ja Lumen pelko (1970), and with Tabu published short story Sankarihymni , the short story Katkelma laajemmasta laulelmasta from the collection Rakastaa: Kaksitoista novellia rakkaudesta (1965) and also the short stories which were published in various Finnish journals: Yöt (1965), Liisa (1967), Tyttö (1967) ja Näin hetki sitten ketun (1970). I pay particular attention to the novel Maa on syntinen laulu, because it expresses the generic change characteristic of Mukka s world view in a specifically clear and lively way. The dissertation is in Finnish. Key words: Timo K. Mukka, world view, genre change, ballad, naturalism, grotesque realism, Mikhail Bakhtin, dialogism, polyphony, chronotope, sublime, grotesque, ressentiment, Sigmund Freud, melancholy, taboo, abject, sadism, reduced laughter, modern parody.

"Minäkin olen täällä löyhkäämässä" : Etnisyyden ja ruumiillisuuden representaatiot Veronica Pimenoffin romaanissa Maa ilman vettä

Tutkin työssäni, miten etnisyys ja ruumiillisuus representoituvat Veronica Pimenoffin romaanissa Maa ilman vettä (1999) ja millaisia merkityksiä nämä representaatiot saavat suhteessa kysymyksiin vallasta, väkivallasta, sukupuolesta, seksuaalisuudesta, hyvinvoinnista ja sairaudesta. Tutkimukseni teoreettisena viitekehyksenä on jälkikoloniaalinen teoria. Romaanissa on keskeisellä tavalla kyse konfliktista: nuoruudenystävykset, suomalainen Kristiina ja mosambikilainen Sofia Elena, kohtaavat jälkimmäisen kuolinvuoteella ja käyvät kiivasta kamppailua aatteista ja arvoista. Olen tulkinnut romaanin päähenkilöt allegorisiksi hahmoiksi, jotka edustavat kotimaitaan ja -mantereitaan. Näihin henkilöhahmoihin kiteytyy ominaisuuksia, jotka tavataan hahmottaa stereotyyppisiksi Euroopalle ja Afrikalle. Etnisyys representoituu paitsi Kristiinan ja Sofia Elenan tyypitellyissä luonteenpiirteissä ja käyttäytymismalleissa myös heidän ulkonäkönsä kuvauksessa. Kristiina kuvataan korostetun vaaleana ja Sofia Elena korostetun mustana, minkä voi tulkita kommentoivan imperialistiseen diskurssiin liittyvää binaarista ajattelua. Myös romaanin miehet ovat tulkittavissa allegorisiksi hahmoiksi: Kristiinan mies Otto edustaa vaimonsa tavoin vaurasta Eurooppaa, amerikkalainen pohatta Mark Hunter Yhdysvaltoja ja sen mahtia ja Kristiinan nuoruudenrakastettu Abdel läntistä kuvitelmaa eksoottisesta Orientista. Ruumiillisuus korostuu romaanissa seksuaalisuuden, sairauden ja väkivallan kuvauksissa. Kristiina on seksuaalinen toteuttaja, jonka kokemus omasta ruumiista määräytyy pitkältä eroottisten kokemusten perusteella. Sofia Elenaa taas ei kuvata seksuaalisena hahmona, vaan hänen kehonsa kuvausta hallitsee sairaus. Koska Sofia Elena on allegorinen hahmo, hänen ruumiinsa voi rinnastaa mantereeseen ja sitä riuduttava sairaus prosesseihin, jotka tunkeutuvat yhteiskuntien rakenteisiin ja nakertavat niitä sisältäpäin: hallitsemattomaan kansainväliseen muuttoliikkeeseen, rikollisuuteen ja terrorismiin. Sofia Elenalla on kokemusta myös väkivallasta: hän on sotinut ja pitää väkivaltaa ainoana keinona taistella Länttä vastaan. Romaani välittää kuitenkin pessimistisen kuvan väkivallan mahdollisuudesta vapauttaa (kolmannen maailman) naiset. Pessimistinen kuva välittyy myös ensimmäisen ja kolmannen maailman naisten mahdollisuuksista ymmärtää toisiaan. Nais-Afrikka ja nais-Eurooppa jäävät romaanissa etäälle toisistaan sekä henkisesti että fyysisesti.

Konstruktiivisen linjakkuuden perusteita etsimässä : Systemaattinen analyysi John Biggsin esittämistä yliopisto-opetuksen lähtökohdista

The aim of this study is to explore by systematic textual analysis the crucial conceptions of constructive alignment and to reconstruct the concept of constructive alignment and examine the relation between conceptual relationships in John Biggs’s texts. In this study, I have also analyzed the presuppositions of the concept of constructive alignment and its possible implications. The research material includes Biggs’s (1996b; 2003) article entitled Enhancing Teaching through Constructive Alignment and book entitled Teaching for Quality Learning at University. The primary purpose of the systematic textual analysis is to reconstruct concepts and gain access to a new or more profound understanding of the concepts. The main purpose of the constructive alignment is to design a teaching system that supports and encourages students to adopt a deep approach learning. At the center of the constructive alignment are two concepts: constructivism in learning and alignment in teaching. A tension was detected between these concepts. Biggs assumes that students’ learning activities are primed by the teaching. Because of this it is not important what the teacher does. At the same time he emphasizes that teaching interacts with learning. The teacher’s task is to support student’s appropriate learning activities. On the basis of the analysis, I conclude these conceptions are not mutually exclusive. Interaction between teaching and learning has an effect on student’s learning activities. The most essential benefit of the model of constructive alignment is that Biggs brings together and considers teaching at the same level with learning. A weakness of Biggs’s model relates to the theoretical basis and positions of the concept of constructive alignment. There are some conflicts between conceptions of epistemology in Biggs’s texts. In addition, Biggs writes about constructivism also as conceptions of epistemology, but doesn’t consider implications of that position or what follows or doesn’t follow from that commitment. On the basis of the analysis, I suggest that constructivism refers in Biggs’s texts rather to constructivism in learning than philosophical constructivism. In light of this study, constructive alignment doesn´t lead to philosophical constructivism. That’s why constructive alignment stays out of idealism. Biggs’s way of thinking about teachers possibility to confronting students’ misconceptions and evaluate and assess students’ constructions support a realist purpose in terms of philosophical stance. Realism does not drift toward general problems of relativism, like lack of criteria for assessing or evaluate these constructions.

Kotitaloustaidon ulottuvuuksia : Analyysi kotitaloustaidosta eksistentialistis-hermeneuttisen fenomenologian valossa

DOMESTIC SKILLS AS THE ART OF EVERYDAY LIFE. An inquiry about domestic skills as a way of being-in-the-world in the light of existentialist-hermeneutics phenomenology. This study focuses on analyzing domestic skills in a phenomenological manner. The description phenomenological emerges from the interpretation process, which originates from the ontological question of domestic skills. The ontological question of how domestic skills are directs one s phenomenological gaze to the experiencing of domestic skills, rather than merely viewing their action or technical aspects. Along with the ontological question, the axiological question of what the meaning of domestic skills is drives the analysis. This study is both theoretical and philosophical. Phenomenology is the guiding philosophy, theory and methodology of the inquiry. Existentialist-hermeneutics is the emphasis which most appropriately describes the phenomenological attitude adopted within the analysis. Martin Heidegger s philosophy of being and Maurice Merleau-Ponty s philosophy of the lived body essentially form the theoretical base for the inquiry. The analysis reveals domestic skills within a core of Care and the Other. Care and the Other are anchored both in Heidegger s analysis of Dasein and in Merleau-Ponty s analysis of the reversible being-in-the-world. The social nature of being and the action-oriented intentionality of the lived body are embodied in Care and the Other. This ontological base of domestic skills enables us to see the extensions that inhabit in it. These extensions are redoing, emotional experiencing, adapting and emancipating. The analysis connects ability and action, which is why domestic skills and household activity must be seen as a united whole. This united whole is not the matter of the two components of the phenomenon, but is rather the matter of domestic skills as a way of being-in-the-world. Domestic skills are a channel for the phenomenon Home Economics to manifest in our lives. This is the gaze that presents domestic skills as to be like the poetry of everyday life. The main result of the study is the elucidation of the ontology of domestic skills and the naming of its extensions. This growth of philosophical understanding makes it possible to strengthen the science of home economics.

"Haluan tuonne heti!" : Tulevaisuuskuvia ghanalaisten, isobritannialaisten,suomalaisten ja tansanialaisten lasten piirustuksissa

"I want there now!" Images of the future in the drawings of Ghanaian, British, Finnish and Tanzanian children The aim of the Thesis is to examine what kind of images children aged between 8 and 12 years in Ghana, Great Britain, Finland and Tanzania hold of their future. The study is a qualitative analysis based on data that consists of 214 drawings, digitally photographed and analysed using AtlasTI computer program. The data was coded and divided into " families " whose frequencies were compared in order to maintain results. The assignment was given to the children in the language used in the school and it was similar in each country. The children were introduced to the idea with a set of stimulating questions and after that they were asked to draw and colour with a pen a picture of 1) him/herself as an adult, 2) his/her future home and 3) the people and the animals they think they will be living with. The children were also asked to write down the country and the place they believe to live in their future. They were also encouraged to write down e.g. their dream profession, what they would like to have as hobbies in their adulthood and other important things in their lives. The analysis focuses on the content of the drawings instead of artistic or psychological interpretations. The differences between the drawings from different countries as well as the differences in a single country were significant. The current trends and the experiences children had lived through were present in the drawings. There were no differences in the colour of the skin and the most popular professions were doctor, police and football player. The football was very strongly present in all of the data; almost fourth of the children had either drawn or mentioned football as their future profession or hobby. Different flora was present in 84% of Tanzanian and 70% of Ghanaian drawings compared to the 23% of British and 17% of Finnish drawings. Of all the family forms a dream of the traditional nuclear family could be found among 29% of the drawings. Compared to that a total of 30% wanted either a child of their own without a spouse (15%) or a spouse without a child (15%). Also grandparents, childhood friends, other adults, animals or even space aliens were present and sharing a home with the children in the drawings. Of all children 15% wanted to live totally alone in the future. This was most typical (38%) among the Finnish boys. The cat and the dog were the most popular animals to appear in the drawings. Moving abroad proved to be purely a western phenomenon, dreamed by 57% of the British and 18% of the Finnish children. As results, a negative self-image, violence, lack of expressions of positive feelings and solitude among the Finnish boys in the data were very concerning. Keywords: Images of the future, future studies, future-education, picture analysis

Tropical dryland agroforestry on clay soils: : Analysis of systems based on Acacia senegal in the Blue Nile region, Sudan

Acacia senegal, the gum arabic producing tree, is the most important component in traditional dryland agroforestry systems in the Blue Nile region, Sudan. The aim of the present study was to provide new knowledge on the potential use of A. senegal in dryland agroforestry systems on clay soils, as well as information on tree/crop interaction, and on silvicultural and management tools, with consideration on system productivity, nutrient cycling and sustainability. Moreover, the aim was also to clarify the intra-specific variation in the performance of A. senegal and, specifically, the adaptation of trees of different origin to the clay soils of the Blue Nile region. In agroforestry systems established at the beginning of the study, tree and crop growth, water use, gum and crop yields, nutrient cycling and system performance were investigated for a period of four years (1999 to 2002). Trees were grown at 5 x 5 m and 10 x 10 m spacing alone or in mixture with sorghum or sesame; crops were also grown in sole culture. The symbiotic biological N2 fixation by A. senegal was estimated using the 15N natural abundance (δ15N) procedure in eight provenances collected from different environments and soil types of the gum arabic belt and grown in clay soil in the Blue Nile region. Balanites aegyptiaca (a non-legume) was used as a non-N-fixing reference tree species, so as to allow 15N-based estimates of the proportion of the nitrogen in trees derived from the atmosphere. In the planted acacia trees, measurements were made on shoot growth, water-use efficiency (as assessed by the δ13C method) and (starting from the third year) gum production. Carbon isotope ratios were obtained from the leaves and branch wood samples. The agroforestry system design caused no statistically significant variation in water use, but the variation was highly significant between years, and the highest water use occurred in the years with high rainfall. No statistically significant differences were found in sorghum or sesame yields when intercropping and sole crop systems were compared (yield averages were 1.54 and 1.54 ha-1 for sorghum and 0.36 and 0.42 t ha-1 for sesame in the intercropped and mono-crop plots, respectively). Thus, at an early stage of agroforestry system management, A. senegal had no detrimental effect on crop yield, but the pattern of resource capture by trees and crops may change as the system matures. Intercropping resulted in taller trees and larger basal and crown diameters as compared to the development of sole trees. It also resulted in a higher land equivalent ratio. When gum yields were analysed it was found that a significant positive relationship existed between the second gum picking and the total gum yield. The second gum picking seems to be a decisive factor in gum production and could be used as an indicator for the total gum yield in a particular year. In trees, the concentrations of N and P were higher in leaves and roots, whereas the levels of K were higher in stems, branches and roots. Soil organic matter, N, P and K contents were highest in the upper soil stratum. There was some indication that the P content slightly increased in the topsoil as the agroforestry plantations aged. At a stocking of 400 trees ha-1 (5 x 5 m spacing), A. senegal accumulated in the biomass a total of 18, 1.21, 7.8 and 972 kg ha-1of N, P, K and OC, respectively. Trees contributed ca. 217 and 1500 kg ha-1 of K and OC, respectively, to the top 25-cm of soil over the first four years of intercropping. Acacia provenances of clay plain origin showed considerable variation in seed weight. They also had the lowest average seed weight as compared to the sandy soil (western) provenances. At the experimental site in the clay soil region, the clay provenances were distinctly superior to the sand provenances in all traits studied but especially in basal diameter and crown width, thus reflecting their adaptation to the environment. Values of δ13C, indicating water use efficiency, were higher in the sand soil group as compared to the clay one, both in leaves and in branch wood. This suggests that the sand provenances (with an average value of -28.07 ) displayed conservative water use and high drought tolerance. Of the clay provenances, the local one (Bout) displayed a highly negative (-29.31 ) value, which indicates less conservative water use that resulted in high productivity at this particular clay-soil site. Water use thus appeared to correspond to the environmental conditions prevailing at the original locations for these provenances. Results suggest that A. senegal provenances from the clay part of the gum belt are adapted for a faster growth rate and higher biomass and gum productivity as compared to provenances from sand regions. A strong negative relationship was found between the per-tree gum yield and water use efficiency, as indicated by δ13C. The differences in water use and gum production were greater among provenance groups than within them, suggesting that selection among rather than within provenances would result in distinct genetic gain in gum yield. The relative δ15N values ( ) were higher in B. aegyptiaca than in the N2-fixing acacia provenances. The amount of Ndfa increased significantly with age in all provenances, indicating that A. senegal is a potentially efficient nitrogen fixer and has an important role in t agroforestry development. The total above-ground contribution of fixed N to foliage growth in 4-year-old A. senegal trees was highest in the Rahad sand-soil provenance (46.7 kg N ha-1) and lowest in the Mazmoom clay-soil provenance (28.7 kg N ha-1). This study represents the first use of the δ15N method for estimating the N input by A. senegal in the gum belt of Sudan. Key words: Acacia senegal, agroforestry, clay plain, δ13C, δ15N, gum arabic, nutrient cycling, Ndfa, Sorghum bicolor, Sesamum indicum

Factors affecting farmland prices in Finland

The purpose of the study was to analyse factors affecting the differences in land prices between regions. The key issue was to find out the policy effects on farmland prices. In addition to comprehensive literature review, a theoretical analysis as well as modern panel and spatial econometric techniques were utilized. The study clearly pointed out the importance of taking into account the possible spatial dependence. The data were exceptionally large, comprising more than 6 000 observations. Thus, it allowed a thorough econometric estimation including the possibility to take into account the spatial nature of the data. This study supports the view that there are many other factors that affect farmland prices besides pure agricultural returns. It was also found that the support clearly affects land prices. However, rather than assuming the discount rates for support and market returns to be similar, the rough analysis refers to the discount rate for support being a little lower. If this were true it would indicate that farmers rely more on support income than market returns. The results support the view presented in literature that land values are more responsive to government payments when these payments are perceived to be permanent. An important result of this study is that the structural differences between regions and the structural change in agriculture seemed to have a considerable role in affecting land prices. Firstly, the present structure affects the competition in the land market: the more dense farms are in the region the more there are potential buyers, and the land price increases. Secondly, the change in farm structure (especially in animal husbandry) connected to the policy changes that increase area-based support affects land prices. The effect comes from two sources. Growing farms need more land for the manure, and the proportion of retiring farmers may be lower. The introduction of the manure density variable proved to be an efficient way to aggregate the otherwise very difficult task of taking into account the environmental pressure caused by structural change in animal husbandry. Finally, infrastructure also has a very important role in determining the price level of agricultural land. If other industries are prospering in the surrounding area, agricultural viability also seems to improve. The non-farm opportunities offered to farm families make continuing and developing farming more tempting.

Monikasvoinen Aamutähti : CMX-yhtyeen Cloaca Maxima -levykokoelman analyysi

Tutkimukseni tehtävä on selvittää, millä tavoin CMX-yhtyeen sanoituksissa käytetään kristinuskoon liittyviä ilmaisuja. CMX on vuonna 1985 perustettu suomalainen yhtye, joka on vuoteen 2008 mennessä julkaissut kaksitoista täysimittaista albumia. CMX-yhtyettä on vaikea sijoittaa yhteen musiikin genreen. Yksinkertaistaen voidaan todeta, että yhtyeen musiikki kehittyi punkista raskaan rockin ja iskelmämusiikin yhdistelmäksi, joka sisältää runsaasti progressiivisen rockin piirteitä. Tutkimukseni kannalta yhtyeen keskeisin jäsen on sen basisti ja laulusolisti Aki Yrjänä, koska hän on myös sanoittanut kaikki tutkimuksessa analysoitavat kappaleet. Aki Yrjänä käyttää taiteilijanimeä A. W. Yrjänä. Valitsin tutkimukseni aineistoksi yhtyeen vuonna 1997 ilmestyneen Cloaca Maxima -levykokoelman, koska se esittelee kattavasti yhtyeen musiikkia vuosilta 1989-1997 ja sisältää valtaosan yhtyeen tunnetuimmista kappaleista. Etsin sanoituksista kristinuskoon liittyvät ilmaisut sisällönanalyysillä. Analysoin ilmaisuja lingvistisen semantiikan avulla sekä vertaamalla niitä erilaisiin uskonkäsityksiin neljässä tutkimusluvussa. Ensimmäinen tutkimusluku sisältää ilmaisut, jotka liittyvät kristinuskon organisaatioon. Analysoin siinä Cloaca Maximan kohdat, joissa mainitaan kirkko, alttari, saarnamies tai saarnaaja. Toinen tutkimusluku sisältää ilmaisut, jotka liittyvät raamatullisiin hahmoihin. Analysoin siinä Cloaca Maximan sanoitukset, joissa esiintyy Maria, Jeesus, Henki, Jumala, Saatana, Perkele, enkeleitä tai henkivaltoja. Olen myös analysoinut Aamutähti-kappaleen nimeä, joka voi Venus-planeetan lisäksi viitata kristillisessä traditiossa Mariaan, Jeesukseen tai Saatanaan. Kolmas tutkimusluku sisältää ilmaisut, jotka löytyvät sekä Cloaca Maximan sanoituksista että Raamatusta. Analysoin siinä Helvetin hyvä paimen -kappaleen nimeä, Jeesuksen "seuraa minua" -ilmaisua hyödyntävää Siivekäs-kappaleen kohtaa sekä Kätketty kukka -kappaleen sanoja, jotka liittyvät hautajaiskaavan siunaussanoihin. Sen lisäksi olen analysoinut kolmannessa tutkimusluvussa Cloaca Maximan sanoitukset, joissa esiintyy sana armo, taivaankansi tai taivaanvahvuus. Neljäs tutkimusluku sisältää ilmaisut, jotka osoittavat Jumalaan kohdistuvaa asennetta. Eri asenteiden keskeiset ajatukset ovat, että Jumalan löytäminen vaatii taitoa, ihmiset unohtavat Jumalan ja että Jumalaa ei ole olemassa. Tutkimukseni tuloksena on, että kristinuskoon liittyviä ilmaisuja käytetään Cloaca Maximan sanoituksissa hyvin erilaisissa tehtävissä. Ilmaisut itsessään ovat myös usein monitulkintaisia, ja kappaleen sisältämät ilmaisut voivat olla keskenään ristiriitaisia. Metaforina käytettävistä ilmaisuista erottuu kaksi ryhmää, joista ensimmäisen ryhmän ilmaisut toimivat kuoleman ja jälkimmäisen ryhmän ilmaisut subjektin tunteiden metaforina. Yrjänän eri lähteistä löytyvistä kommenteista voidaan päätellä, että hän ei halua ohjata kuulijoiden tekemiä tulkintoja mihinkään suuntaan ja että sanoituksien monitulkintaisuus on tarkoituksellista.

Parisuhde ja ero : Sosiologinen analyysi terapeuttisesta ymmärryksestä

This study takes as its premise the prominent social and cultural role that the couple relationship has acquired in modern society. Marriage as a social institution and romantic love as a cultural script have not lost their significance but during the last few decades the concept of relationship has taken prominence in our understanding of the love relationship. This change has taken place in a society governed by the therapeutic ethos. This study uses material ranging from in-depth interviews to various mass media texts to investigate the therapeutic logic that determines our understanding of the couple relationship. The central concept in this study is therapeutic relationship which does not refer to any particular type of relationship. In contemporary usage the relationship is, by definition, therapeutic. The therapeutic relationship is seen as an endless source of conflict and a highly complex dynamic unit in constant need of attention and treatment. Notwithstanding this emphasis on therapy and relationship work the therapeutic relationship lacks any morally or socially defined direction. Here lies the cultural power and according to critics the dubious aspect of the therapeutic ethos. For the therapeutic logic any reason for divorce is possible and plausible. Prosaically speaking the question is not whether to divorce or not, but when to divorce. In the end divorce only attests to the complexity of the relationship. The therapeutic understanding of the relationship gives the illusion that relationships with their tensions and conflicting emotions can be fully transferred to the sphere of transparency and therapeutic processing. This illusion created by relationship talk that emphasizes individual control is called omnipotence of the individual. However, the study shows that the individual omnipotence is inevitably limited and hence cracks appear in it. The cracks in the omnipotence show that while the therapeutic relationship based on the ideal of communication gives an individual a mode of speaking that stresses autonomy, equality and emotional gratification, it offers little help in expressing our fundamental dependence on other people. The study shows how strong an attraction the therapeutic ethos has with its grasp on the complexities of the relationship in a society where divorce is so common and the risk of divorce is collectively experienced.

Pahaa hyvän puolesta? Venäjän Georgian- ja Naton Kosovon-interventioiden oikeutusperusteet presidenttien puheissa

Naton Kosovon-interventiolla vuonna 1999 ja Venäjän Georgian-interventiolla vuonna 2008 ei äkkiseltään katsottuna ole juurikaan yhteistä. Molemmissa tapauksissa kuitenkin suurempi valtio tai organisaatio toteutti sotilaallisen intervention suvereenin valtion fyysiselle alueelle ilman legitiimin kansainvälisen auktoriteetin, Yhdistyneiden kansakuntien turvallisuusneuvoston, siunausta. Molemmissa tapauksissa intervention kohteena oli monikulttuurinen, monien sosiaalisten, taloudellisten ja poliittisten jakolinjojen maa ja alue, jossa vähemmistöjen asema oli voimakkaan debatin aiheena. Tämän ”Pahaa hyvän puolesta?” -tutkielman tavoitteena on Yhdysvaltain ja Venäjän presidenttien puheissaan esittämien interventioiden oikeusperusteiden sekä niiden samankaltaisuuksien ja erojen määritteleminen. Tutkimuksen aineiston muodostavat presidentti Clintonin maalis-huhtikuussa 1999 ja presidentti Medvedevin elokuussa 2008 pitämät puheet, joissa he pyrkivät oikeuttamaan johtamaansa interventiota. Keskustelu Kosovon ja Georgian tapausten yhteneväisyyksistä heräsi syksyllä 2008: esimerkiksi pääministeri Vladimir Putin käytti Kosovon itsenäistymistä Georgian separatistialueiden itsenäistymisen esikuvana ja suomalaisten Venäjän-tutkijoiden piirissä interventioiden yhtäläisyyksiä pohdittiin jo pian Georgian tapahtumien alettua elokuussa 2008. Tähän keskusteluun haluan tällä tutkimuksella osallistua. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen tausta muodostuu valtiota, suvereniteettia, interventiota, sotaa, uhkaa ja identiteettiä käsittelevistä teorioista, Chaïm Perelmanin retoriikan teoriasta sekä aiemmasta Venäjän ja Yhdysvaltain ulkopolitiikkaa ja Georgiaa ja Kosovoa käsittelevästä tutkimuksesta. Aineiston analyysi osoittaa, että presidenttien esittämissä oikeusperusteissa oli sekä samankaltaisuuksia että eroavaisuuksia. Medvedevin esittelemät oikeutusperusteet voidaan jakaa neljään eri ryhmään, joita ovat kansainvälisen lainsäädännön rikkominen, humanitaariset syyt ja omien kansalaisten suojelu, rauhanturvaamisen ja historiallisen tehtävän täyttäminen sekä interventio rangaistuksena. Clintonin esittämät oikeutusperusteet jaan tässä tutkimuksessa viiteen ryhmään: interventio suuremman katastrofin estämiskeinona, humanitaarisen katastrofin, etnisen väkivallan ja julmuuden lopettamiskeinona, Yhdysvallat rauhantekijänä, vapaan, rauhallisen ja vakaan Euroopan puolesta sekä interventio moraalisena valintana ja vastauksena kansainvälisten sopimusten rikkomiselle. Puheissa esiintyy voimakkaita tunteisiin vetoavia ilmaisuja ja niissä on havaittavissa ajallinen evoluutio, ilmaisujen vähittäinen muuttuminen ajan kuluessa. Aineisto keskittyy erityisesti intervention alkuvaiheeseen, jolloin legitimiteetin vahvistaminen oli erityisen tärkeää. Molemmissa presidenttien puheissa uhka ja toiseus määritellään selkeästi. Oma toiminta esitetään korostetun positiivisessa valossa, viattomien pelastajana ja lain, oikeudenmukaisuuden ja turvallisuuden puolustajana. Puheet on suunnattu tarjoamaan jotain jokaiselle yleisölle. Poliittisina, virallisina dokumentteina niiden tehtävänä on vallankäyttö ja yleisöjen asenteisiin ja mielipiteisiin vaikuttaminen myös arvoihin vetoamalla. Puheet ovat viimeisteltyjä poliittisen teatterin näytöksiä. Näiden näytösten rooleja näyttelevät niin suuri valtio, pieni valtio, kansainvälinen yhteisö ja viattomien ihmisten kohtalokin.