Detrimental effects of exuberant and restrained immune responses against the central nervous system in the context of multiple sclerosis and glioblastoma multiforme

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and most aggressive astrocytic tumor of the central nervous system (CNS) in adults. The standard treatment consisting of surgery, followed by a combinatorial radio- and chemotherapy, is only palliative and prolongs patient median survival to 12 to 15 months. The tumor subpopulation of stem cell-like glioma-initiating cells (GICs) shows resistance against radiation as well as chemotherapy, and has been suggested to be responsible for relapses of more aggressive tumors after therapy. The efficacy of immunotherapies, which exploit the immune system to specifically recognize and eliminate malignant cells, is limited due to strong immunosuppressive activities of the GICs and the generation of a specialized protective microenvironment. The molecular mechanisms underlying the therapy resistance of GICs are largely unknown. rnThe first aim of this study was to identify immune evasion mechanisms in GICs triggered by radiation. A model was used in which patient-derived GICs were treated in vitro with fractionated ionizing radiation (2.5 Gy in 7 consecutive passages) to select for a more radio-resistant phenotype. In the model cell line 1080, this selection process resulted in increased proliferative but diminished migratory capacities in comparison to untreated control GICs. Furthermore, radio-selected GICs downregulated various proteins involved in antigen processing and presentation, resulting in decreased expression of MHC class I molecules on the cellular surface and diminished recognition potential by cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. Thus, sub-lethal fractionated radiation can promote immune evasion and hamper the success of adjuvant immunotherapy. Among several immune-associated proteins, interferon-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3) was found to be upregulated in radio-selected GICs. While high expression of IFITM3 was associated with a worse overall survival of GBM patients (TCGA database) and increased proliferation and migration of differentiated glioma cell lines, a strong contribution of IFITM3 to proliferation in vitro as well as tumor growth and invasiveness in a xenograft model could not be observed. rnMultiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common autoimmune disease of the CNS in young adults of the Western World, which leads to progressive disability in genetically susceptible individuals, possibly triggered by environmental factors. It is assumed that self-reactive, myelin-specific T helper cell 1 (Th1) and Th17 cells, which have escaped the control mechanisms of the immune system, are critical in the pathogenesis of the human disease and its animal model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). It was observed that in vitro differentiated interleukin 17 (IL-17) producing Th17 cells co-expressed the Th1-phenotypic cytokine Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in combination with the two respective lineage-associated transcription factors RORγt and T-bet after re-isolation from the CNS of diseased mice. Pathogenic molecular mechanisms that render a CD4+ T cell encephalitogenic have scarcely been investigated up to date. rnIn the second part of the thesis, whole transcriptional changes occurring in in vitro differentiated Th17 cells in the course of EAE were analyzed. Evaluation of signaling networks revealed an overrepresentation of genes involved in communication between the innate and adaptive immune system and metabolic alterations including cholesterol biosynthesis. The transcription factors Cebpa, Fos, Klf4, Nfatc1 and Spi1, associated with thymocyte development and naïve T cells were upregulated in encephalitogenic CNS-isolated CD4+ T cells, proposing a contribution to T cell plasticity. Correlation of the murine T-cell gene expression dataset to putative MS risk genes, which were selected based on their proximity (± 500 kb; ensembl database, release 75) to the MS risk single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) proposed by the most recent multiple sclerosis GWAS in 2011, revealed that 67.3% of the MS risk genes were differentially expressed in EAE. Expression patterns of Bach2, Il2ra, Irf8, Mertk, Odf3b, Plek, Rgs1, Slc30a7, and Thada were confirmed in independent experiments, suggesting a contribution to T cell pathogenicity. Functional analysis of Nfatc1 revealed that Nfatc1-deficient CD4+ T cells were restrained in their ability to induce clinical signs of EAE. Nfatc1-deficiency allowed proper T cell activation, but diminished their potential to fully differentiate into Th17 cells and to express high amounts of lineage cytokines. As the inducible Nfatc1/αA transcript is distinct from the other family members, it could represent an interesting target for therapeutic intervention in MS.rn

Pathogenicity mechanisms of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter fetus : characterization of pathogenicity factors and signaling in host cell invasion

Campylobacter jejuni, CadF, actin cytoskeleton, GTPases, signaling

Searching for Moniliophthora perniciosa pathogenicity genes

The basidiomycete Moniliophthora perniciosa is the causal agent of witches` broom disease of Theobroma cacao (cacao). Pathogenesis mechanisms of this hemibiotrophic fungus are largely unknown. An approach to identify putative pathogenicity genes is searching for sequences induced in mycelia grown under in vitro conditions. Using this approach, genes from M. perniciosa induced under limiting nitrogen and light were identified from a cDNA library enriched by suppression subtractive hybridization as potential putative pathogenicity genes. From the 159 identified unique sequences, 59 were annotated and classified by gene ontology. Two sequences were categorized as ""Defence genes, Virulence, and Cell response"" presumably coding for allergenic proteins, whose homologues from other fungi are inducers of animal or plant defences. Differential gene expression was evaluated by quantitative amplification of reversed transcripts (RT-qPCR) of the putative identified genes coding for the two allergenic proteins (Aspf13 and 88KD), and for the enzymes Arylsulfatase (AS); Aryl-Alcohol Oxidase; Aldo-Keto Reductase (AK); Cytochrome P450 (P450); Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase; and Peroxidase from mycelia grown under contrasting N concentrations. All genes were validated for differential expression, except for the putative Peroxidase. The same eight genes were analysed for expression in susceptible plants inoculated with M. perniciosa, and six were induced during the early asymptomatic stage of the disease. In infected host tissues, transcripts of 88KD and AS were found more abundant at the biotrophic phase, while those from Aspf13, AK, PAL, and P450 accumulated at the necrotrophic phase, enabling to suggest that mycelia transition from biotrophic to necrotrophic might occur earlier than currently considered. These sequences appeared to be virulence life-style genes, which encode factors or enzymes that enable invasion, colonization or intracellular survival, or manipulate host factors to benefit the pathogen`s own survival in the hostile environment. (C) 2010 The British Mycological Society. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Cell surface expression of adhesins for fibronectin correlates with virulence in Sporothrix schenckii

The virulence of four Sporothrix schenckii isolates was compared in a murine model of sporotrichosis, together with the protein pattern of the yeast cell surface and the capacity to bind the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin. Virulence was determined by the mortality rate, fungal burden and histopathology. Two clinical isolates were more virulent for C57BL/6 mice, but no direct correlation was seen between virulence and the clinical or environmental origin of the isolates. The lowest virulence was observed for an isolate recovered from a patient with meningeal sporotrichosis. Although all isolates could effectively disseminate, the dissemination patterns were not similar. Using flow cytometry analysis, we investigated the interaction of all the strains with fibronectin, and showed that the binding capacity correlated with virulence. Western blot analysis of S. schenckii cell wall extracts revealed positive bands for fibronectin in the range of 3792 kDa. The 70 kDa adhesin was also recognized by a protective monoclonal antibody raised against a gp70 antigen of S. schenckii (mAb P6E7). Confocal microscopy confirmed the co-localization of fibronectin and mAb P6E7 on the yeast cell surface. To our knowledge, this is the first report identifying adhesins for fibronectin on the surface of this human pathogen.

Human Airway Epithelial Cell Responses to Neisseria lactamica and Purified Porin via Toll-Like Receptor 2-Dependent Signaling

The human airway epithelium is constantly exposed to microbial products from colonizing organisms. Regulation of Toll-like receptor (TLR) expression and specific interactions with bacterial ligands is thought to mitigate exacerbation of inflammatory processes induced by the commensal flora in these cells. The genus Neisseria comprises pathogenic and commensal organisms that colonize the human nasopharynx. Neisseria lactamica is not associated with disease, but N. meningitidis occasionally invades the host, causing meningococcal disease and septicemia. Upon colonization of the airway epithelium, specific host cell receptors interact with numerous Neisseria components, including the PorB porin, at the immediate bacterial-host cell interface. This major outer membrane protein is expressed by all Neisseria strains, regardless of pathogenicity, but its amino acid sequence varies among strains, particularly in the surface-exposed regions. The interaction of Neisseria PorB with TLR2 is essential for driving TLR2/TLR1-dependent cellular responses and is thought to occur via the porin`s surface-exposed loop regions. Our studies show that N. lactamica PorB is a TLR2 ligand but its binding specificity for TLR2 is different from that of meningococcal PorB. Furthermore, N. lactamica PorB is a poor inducer of proinflammatory mediators and of TLR2 expression in human airway epithelial cells. These effects are reproduced by whole N. lactamica organisms. Since the responsiveness of human airway epithelial cells to colonizing bacteria is in part regulated via TLR2 expression and signaling, commensal organisms such as N. lactamica would benefit from expressing a product that induces low TLR2-dependent local inflammation, likely delaying or avoiding clearance by the host.

Cdc42p controls yeast-cell shape and virulence of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is characterized by a multiple budding phenotype and a polymorphic cell growth, leading to the formation of cells with extreme variations in shape and size. Since Cdc42 is a pivotal molecule in establishing and maintaining polarized growth for diverse cell types, as well as during pathogenesis of certain fungi, we evaluated its role during cell growth and virulence of the yeast-form of P. brasiliensis. We used antisense technology to knock-down PbCDC42`s expression in P. brasiliensis yeast cells, promoting a decrease in cell size and more homogenous cell growth, altering the typical polymorphism of wild-type cells. Reduced expression levels also lead to increased phagocytosis and decreased virulence in a mouse model of infection. We provide genetic evidences underlying Pbcdc42p as an important protein during host-pathogen interaction and the relevance of the polymorphic nature and cell size in the pathogenesis of P. brasiliensis. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Neither Molecular Diversity of the Envelope, Immunosuppression Status, Nor Proviral Load Causes Indeterminate HTLV Western Blot Profiles in Samples From Human T-Cell Lymphotropic Virus Type 2 (HTLV-2)-Infected Individuals

Although human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 2 (HTLV-2) is considered of low pathogenicity, serological diagnosis is important for counseling and monitoring. The confirmatory tests most used are Western blot (WB) and PCR. However, in high-risk populations, about 50% of the indeterminate WB were HTLV-2 positives by PCR. The insensitivity of the WB might be due to the use of recombinant proteins of strains that do not circulate in our country. Another possibility may be a high level of immunosuppression, which could lead to low production of virus, resulting in low stimulation of antibody. We found one mutation, proline to serine in the envelope region in the position 184, presented at least 1/3 of the samples, independent the indeterminate WB profile. In conclusion, we found no correlation of immune state, HTLV-2 proviral load, or env diversity in the K55 region and WB indeterminate results. We believe that the only WB kit available in the market is probably more accurate to detect HTLV-1 antibodies, and some improvement for HTLV-2 detection should be done in the future, especially among high-risk population. J. Med. Virol. 82:837-842,2010. (C) 2010 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Host-induced changes in the cell surface N-linked glycoproteins, from Aspergillus fumigatus. Search for specific targets with potential for clinical therapy and/or diagnosis.

This dissertation is presented to obtain a Master degree in Structural and Functional Biochemistry

Vibrio fluvialis attachs to but does not enter Hela cell monolayers

Considering the possibility that invasiveness could be a neglected factor of virulence in Vibrio fluvialis-linked enteritis, since a dysenteric form of the disease was seen in Bangladesh, we studied 12 Brazilian strains of the organism, six clinical and six environmental, to determine whether they might be able to enter into HeLa cell monolayers or would carry plasmids incidentally involved in invasiveness. Four human and two environmental isolates attached to but did not enter into the cells. Though five strains harbored plasmids,no relationship was found between the carriage of these genetic elements and adhesiveness.

Waddlia chondrophila: from biology to pathogenicity.

Waddlia chondrophila is an emerging pathogen causing miscarriages in humans and abortions in ruminants. The full genome of this Chlamydia-related bacterium has been recently completed, providing new insights into its biology and evolution. Moreover, new cell biology approaches and the use of novel inhibitors have allowed detailed investigations of its interaction with host cells.

Role of the host cell's unfolded protein response in arenavirus infection.

Arenaviruses are enveloped RNA viruses with a nonlytic life cycle that cause acute and persistent infections. Here, we investigated the role of the host cell's unfolded protein response (UPR) in infection of the prototypic arenavirus lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). In mammalian cells, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone protein GRP78/BiP functions as the principal sensor for the induction of the UPR and interacts with three mediators: kinase/endonuclease inositol-requiring protein 1 (IRE1), PKR-like ER kinase (PERK), and activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6). Acute infection with LCMV resulted in a selective induction of the ATF6-regulated branch of the UPR, whereas pathways controlled by PERK and IRE1 were neither activated nor blocked. Expression of individual LCMV proteins revealed that the viral glycoprotein precursor (GPC), but not that of other viral proteins, was responsible for the induction of ATF6. Rapid downregulation of the viral GPC during transition from acute to persistent LCMV infection restored basal levels of UPR signaling. To address a possible role of ATF6 signaling in LCMV infection, we used cells deficient in site 2 protease (S2P), a metalloprotease required for the activation of ATF6. Cells deficient in S2P showed significantly lower levels of production of infectious virus during acute but not persistent infection, indicating a requirement for ATF6-mediated signaling for optimal virus multiplication. In summary, acute LCMV infection seems to selectively induce the ATF6-regulated branch of the UPR that is likely beneficial for virus replication and cell viability, but it avoids induction of PERK and IRE1, whose activation may be detrimental for virus and the host cell.

MsrR contributes to cell surface characteristics and virulence in Staphylococcus aureus.

MsrR, a factor contributing to methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus, belongs to the LytR-CpsA-Psr family of cell envelope-associated proteins. Deletion of msrR increased cell size and aggregation, and altered envelope properties, leading to a temporary reduction in cell surface hydrophobicity, diminished colony-spreading ability, and an increased susceptibility to Congo red. The reduced phosphorus content of purified cell walls of the msrR mutant suggested a reduction in wall teichoic acids, which may explain some of the observed phenotypes. Microarray analysis of the msrR deletion mutant revealed only minor changes in the global transcriptome, suggesting that MsrR has structural rather than regulatory functions. Importantly, virulence of the msrR mutant was decreased in a nematode-killing assay as well as in rat experimental endocarditis. MsrR is therefore likely to play a role in cell envelope maintenance, cell separation, and pathogenicity of S. aureus.

Domain shuffling in a sensor protein contributed to the evolution of insect pathogenicity in plant-beneficial Pseudomonas protegens.

Pseudomonas protegens is a biocontrol rhizobacterium with a plant-beneficial and an insect pathogenic lifestyle, but it is not understood how the organism switches between the two states. Here, we focus on understanding the function and possible evolution of a molecular sensor that enables P. protegens to detect the insect environment and produce a potent insecticidal toxin specifically during insect infection but not on roots. By using quantitative single cell microscopy and mutant analysis, we provide evidence that the sensor histidine kinase FitF is a key regulator of insecticidal toxin production. Our experimental data and bioinformatic analyses indicate that FitF shares a sensing domain with DctB, a histidine kinase regulating carbon uptake in Proteobacteria. This suggested that FitF has acquired its specificity through domain shuffling from a common ancestor. We constructed a chimeric DctB-FitF protein and showed that it is indeed functional in regulating toxin expression in P. protegens. The shuffling event and subsequent adaptive modifications of the recruited sensor domain were critical for the microorganism to express its potent insect toxin in the observed host-specific manner. Inhibition of the FitF sensor during root colonization could explain the mechanism by which P. protegens differentiates between the plant and insect host. Our study establishes FitF of P. protegens as a prime model for molecular evolution of sensor proteins and bacterial pathogenicity.

Interactions of Adeno-associated virus Rep78 protein with the host cell

Abstract : Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is a small DNA virus belonging to the familiy of Parvoviridae. Its genome contains two genes : the rep gene encoding four non structural proteins (Rep78, 68, 52 and 40) implicated in transcription, replication and site-specific integration of the viral DNA and the cap gene encoding three capsid proteins. AAV does not cause any disease, but is studied in view of its potential use to treat several diseases. An interesting property of AAV is its antiproliferative effect. Two elements of AAV can inhibit cell growth. Firstly, the single stranded viral DNA is recognized in cells as damaged DNA leading to either a G2 block or cell death depending on p53 status. Secondly, the two larger Rep proteins (Rep78 and 68) also arrest the cell cycle when they are expressed at high levels. Rep78 in particular induces a complete cell cycle arrest in all the phases, including S phase. Such a strong S phase arrest is rarely seen in other conditions. It was thus interesting to determine how Rep78 could induce it. We found that this strong block is the consequence of Rep78's effects on at least two pathways. Rep78 induces a DNA damage response by producing nicks in the cellular chromatin. Furthermore, Rep78 can bind to the cellular phosphatase Cdc25A and prevent its binding to its substrates CDK2 and CDK1, thus inhibiting its activity. A mutational analysis of Rep78 protein determined that its endonuclease activity is responsible for the DNA damage response and its zinc finger domain for Cdc25A inhibition. The combined expression of two mutants each defective for one of these activities, or these two activities obtained independently of Rep78, could restore the complete cell cycle block, indicating that these two effects of Rep78 are likely to explain completely the cell cycle block it induces. Secondly, the lack of pathogenicity of AAV, its broad range of infection and its ability to integrate site-specifically in human chromosome 19 make it an interesting potential vector for gene therapy. However site-specific integration is only possible in the presence of Rep78/68 whose gene is removed in recombinant AAV vectors. In this part of the study, we tried to introduce Rep protein separately from recombinant AAV vectors to promote their site-specific integration. For that purpose, a fusion protein, TAT-Rep, comprising Rep78/68 joined to the human immunodeficiency virus Tat protein was produced. It had the ability to enter cells and remain active there for a short period. Its activity was sufficient to mediate transcription from the p5 promoter, second-strand synthesis of a recombinant AAV and probably site-specific integration. Résumé : Le virus associé à l'adénovirus (AAV) est un petit virus à ADN qui fait partie de la famille des Parvoviridae. Son génome contient deux gènes : le gène rep code pour quatre protéines (Rep78, 68, 52 et 40) qui participent à la transcription, la réplication et l'intégration du virus et le gène cap code pour les trois protéines de capside. AAV ne produit pas de maladie, mais pourrait au contraire être utilisé pour en soigner. Sa bénignité, sa capacité à infecter différents types de cellules et son intégration spécifique en font un vecteur potentiel pour la thérapie génique. Pour qu'il puisse s'intégrer spécifiquement, il a besoin de la protéine Rep78 ou 68, mais ce gène doit être enlevé des vecteurs pour la thérapie génique. Le but de la première partie de cette étude était d'introduire Rep78 ou 68 dans des cellules en même temps qu'un AAV recombinant, mais indépendamment afin de permettre une intégration spécifique. La stratégie utilisée était de produire une protéine de fusion (TAT-Rep) qui peut entrer dans des cellules si elle est présente dans leur milieu. Cette protéine entrait bien dans les cellules et y était active favorisant ainsi l'intégration spécifique. Une deuxième propriété d'AAV, son effet anti-prolifératif, est intéressante dans le cadre de certaines maladies comme le cancer. Deux éléments d'AAV en sont responsables. D'abord, son ADN simple brin active une réponse cellulaire à l'ADN endommagé et arrête les cellules en G2 ou provoque leur mort. De plus, la protéine Rep78 d'AAV peut fortement bloquer le cycle cellulaire à toutes les phases, même en phase S, ce qui est rare. C'est pourquoi nous avons essayé de comprendre cet effet. Nous avons remarqué que Rep78 doit agir sur deux fronts pour obtenir ce fort bloc. D'un côté, Rep78 introduit des coupures simple brin sur l'ADN de la cellule ce qui active une réponse cellulaire à l'ADN endommagé qui passe par ATM. D'un autre côté, Rep78 lie une phosphatase cellulaire, Cdc25A, et l'empêche ainsi de lier ses substrats CDK2 et CDK1 et donc d'être active. Finalement, à l'aide de mutants de Rep78, nous avons déterminé que l'activité endonuclease de Rep78 était nécessaire pour induire une réponse cellulaire via ATM et que le domaine C-terminal appelé «zinc finger » était responsable de la liaison avec Cdc25A. En co-exprimant deux mutants, qui n'ont chacun qu'un des effets de Rep78, ou en obtenant les deux effets de Rep78 indépendamment d'elle, nous avons obtenu un bloc complet du cycle cellulaire similaire à celui obtenu avec Rep78. Il est donc probable que ces deux effets de Rep78 sont suffisants pour expliquer comment elle arrive à arrêter le cycle cellulaire si efficacement.

Discordant increases in CD4+ T cells in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients experiencing virologic treatment failure: role of changes in thymic output and T cell death.

Some patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) who are experiencing antiretroviral treatment failure have persistent improvement in CD4+ T cell counts despite high plasma viremia. To explore the mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon, 2 parameters influencing the dynamics of CD4+ T cells were evaluated: death of mature CD4+ T cells and replenishment of the CD4+ T cell pool by the thymus. The improvement in CD4+ T cells observed in patients with treatment failure was not correlated with spontaneous, Fas ligand-induced, or activation-induced T cell death. In contrast, a significant correlation between the improvement in CD4+ T cell counts and thymic output, as assessed by measurement of T cell receptor excision circles, was observed. These observations suggest that increased thymic output contributes to the dissociation between CD4+ T cell counts and viremia in patients failing antiretroviral therapy and support a model in which drug-resistant HIV strains may have reduced replication rates and pathogenicity in the thymus.