Planeamento de curto prazo de sistemas de energia solar usando técnicas de otimização robusta

Dissertação para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Engenharia Electrotécnica

The need of subsidy for the implementation of photovoltaic solar energy as supporting of decentralized electrical power generation in Brazil

The growing demand for electrical power and the limited capital invested to provide this power is forcing countries like Brazil to search for new alternatives for electrical power generation. The purpose of this paper is to present a technical and economic study on a 15 kW solar plant installed in an isolated community, highlighting the importance of the need for financial subsidy from the government. It evaluates the importance of parameters such as the annual interest rate, specific investment, the marginal cost of expanding the electrical power supply and the government subsidy on amortization time of capital invested. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.

Grid-connected roof solar plants in educational institutions for testing and electricity generation: a case in Spain.

The use of photovoltaic experimental plants in engineering educational buildings contributes to an increase in acceptance of this technology by future engineers. There are some photovoltaic (PV) systems in educational buildings in Spain, but they are usually limited to buildings in relation to electrical technologies or research areas. They are not common in other educational or official buildings. This paper presents the project of a grid-connected solar plant with two main objectives. First, different PV module technologies will be compared. Second, an emphasis on agronomical areas in educational settings will be reviewed in an attempt to facilitate student engagement in the use of the power plant. The system is grid-connected in order to pay-back the investment in the plant. In fact the electricity generated by the plant will be used by the installations of the building, as it is the closest consumer. This work intends to approximate photovoltaic technology to university degrees not directly related with it and at the same time research in comparison of systems with different technologies. This is a good example of an solar plant for both optimum production and educational purposes.

Domestic hot water consumption vs. solar thermal energy storage: the optimum size of the storage tank

Many efforts have been made in order to adequate the production of a solar thermal collector field to the consumption of domestic hot water of the inhabitants of a building. In that sense, much has been achieved in different domains: research agencies, government policies and manufacturers. However, most of the design rules of the solar plants are based on steady state models, whereas solar irradiance, consumption and thermal accumulation are inherently transient processes. As a result of this lack of physical accuracy, thermal storage tanks are sometimes left to be as large as the designer decides without any aforementioned precise recommendation. This can be a problem if solar thermal systems are meant to be implemented in nowadays buildings, where there is a shortage of space. In addition to that, an excessive storage volume could not result more efficient in many residential applications, but costly, extreme in space consumption and in some cases too heavy. A proprietary transient simulation program has been developed and validated with a detailed measurement campaign in an experimental facility. In situ environmental data have been obtained through a whole year of operation. They have been gathered at intervals of 10 min for a solar plant of 50 m2 with a storage tank of 3 m3, including the equipment for domestic hot water production of a typical apartment building. This program has been used to obtain the design and dimensioning criteria of DHW solar plants under daily transient conditions throughout a year and more specifically the size of the storage tank for a multi storey apartment building. Comparison of the simulation results with the current Spanish regulation applicable, “Código Técnico de la Edificación” (CTE 2006), offers fruitful details and establishes solar facilities dimensioning criteria.

Supercritical Steam power cycle for Line-Focus Solar Power Plants

The supercritical Rankine power cycle offers a net improvement in plant efficiency compared with a subcritical Rankine cycle. For fossil power plants the minimum supercritical steam turbine size is about 450MW. A recent study between Sandia National Laboratories and Siemens Energy, Inc., published on March 2013, confirmed the feasibility of adapting the Siemens turbine SST-900 for supercritical steam in concentrated solar power plants, with a live steam conditions 230-260 bar and output range between 140-200 MWe. In this context, this analysis is focused on integrating a line-focus solar field with a supercritical Rankine power cycle. For this purpose two heat transfer fluids were assessed: direct steam generation and molten salt Hitec XL. To isolate solar field from high pressure supercritical water power cycle, an intermediate heat exchanger was installed between linear solar collectors and balance of plant. Due to receiver selective coating temperature limitations, turbine inlet temperature was fixed 550ºC. The design-point conditions were 550ºC and 260 bar at turbine inlet, and 165 MWe Gross power output. Plant performance was assessed at design-point in the supercritical power plant (between 43-45% net plant efficiency depending on balance of plantconfiguration), and in the subcritical plant configuration (~40% net plant efficiency). Regarding the balance of plant configuration, direct reheating was adopted as the optimum solution to avoid any intermediate heat exchanger. One direct reheating stage between high pressure turbine and intermediate pressure turbine is the common practice; however, General Electric ultrasupercritical(350 bar) fossil power plants also considered doubled-reheat applications. In this study were analyzed heat balances with single-reheat, double-reheat and even three reheating stages. In all cases were adopted the proper reheating solar field configurations to limit solar collectors pressure drops. As main conclusion, it was confirmed net plant efficiency improvements in supercritical Rankine line-focus (parabolic or linear Fresnel) solar plant configurations are mainly due to the following two reasons: higher number of feed-water preheaters (up to seven)delivering hotter water at solar field inlet, and two or even three direct reheating stages (550ºC reheating temperature) in high or intermediate pressure turbines. However, the turbine manufacturer should confirm the equipment constrains regarding reheating stages and number of steam extractions to feed-water heaters.

Evaluación de un sistema de energía solar térmica basado en colectores de tubos de vacío para suministro de agua a alta temperatura

Esta tesis pretende contribuir al fomento y utilización de la energía solar como alternativa para la producción de agua caliente en el sector agroindustrial. La demanda de agua caliente es un aspecto clave en un gran número de agroindustrias y explotaciones agrarias. Esta demanda presenta una gran variabilidad, tanto en los horarios en que se solicita como en la temperatura del agua del depósito requerida (TADr), difiriendo del perfil de demanda habitual para uso doméstico. Existe una necesidad de profundizar en la influencia que tiene la variación de la TADr en la eficiencia y viabilidad de estos sistemas. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es caracterizar el funcionamiento de un sistema solar térmico (SST) con captador de tubos de vacío (CTV) para producir agua a temperaturas superiores a las habituales en estos sistemas. Se pretende determinar la influencia que la TADr tiene sobre la eficiencia energética del sistema, cuantificar el volumen de agua caliente que es capaz de suministrar en función de la TADr y determinar la rentabilidad del SST como sistema complementario de suministro. Para ello, se ha diseñado, instalado y puesto a punto un sistema experimental de calentamiento de agua, monitorizando su funcionamiento a diferentes TADr bajo condiciones ambientales reales. Los resultados cuantifican cómo el aumento de la TADr provoca una disminución de la energía suministrada al depósito, pudiendo superar diferencias de 1000 Wh m-2 d-1 entre 40 ºC y 80 ºC, para valores de irradiación solar próximos a 8000 Wh m-2 d-1 (la eficiencia del sistema oscila entre 73% y 56%). Esta reducción es consecuencia de la disminución de la eficiencia del captador y del aumento de las pérdidas de calor en las tuberías del circuito. En cuanto al agua suministrada, cuanto mayor es la TADr, mayor es la irradiación solar requerida para que tenga lugar la primera descarga de agua, aumentando el tiempo entre descargas y disminuyendo el número de éstas a lo largo del día. A medida que se incrementa la TADr, se produce una reducción del volumen de agua suministrado a la TADr, por factores como la pérdida de eficiencia del captador, las pérdidas en las tuberías, la energía acumulada en el agua que no alcanza la TADr y la mayor energía extraída del sistema en el agua producida. Para una TADr de 80 ºC, una parte importante de la energía permanece acumulada en el depósito sin alcanzar la TADr al final del día. Para aprovechar esta energía sería necesario disponer de un sistema complementario de suministro, ya que las pérdidas de calor nocturnas en el depósito pueden reducir considerablemente la energía útil disponible al día siguiente. La utilización del sistema solar como sistema único de suministro es inviable en la mayoría de los casos, especialmente a TADr elevadas, al no ajustarse la demanda de agua caliente a la estacionalidad de la producción del sistema solar, y al existir muchos días sin producción de agua caliente por la ausencia de irradiación mínima. Por el contrario, la inversión del sistema solar como sistema complementario para suministrar parte de la demanda térmica de una instalación es altamente recomendable. La energía útil anual del sistema solar estimada oscila entre 1322 kWh m-2 y 1084 kWh m-2. La mayor rentabilidad se obtendría suponiendo la existencia de una caldera eléctrica, donde la inversión se recuperaría en pocos años -entre 5.7 años a 40 ºC y 7.2 años a 80 ºC -. La rentabilidad también es elevada suponiendo la existencia de una caldera de gasóleo, con periodos de recuperación inferiores a 10 años. En una industria ficticia con demanda de 100 kWh d-1 y caldera de gasóleo existente, la inversión en una instalación solar optimizada sería rentable a cualquier TADr, con valores de VAN cercanos a la inversión realizada -12000 € a 80 ºC y 15000€ a 40 ºC- y un plazo de recuperación de la inversión entre 8 y 10 años. Los resultados de este estudio pueden ser de gran utilidad a la hora de determinar la viabilidad de utilización de sistemas similares para suministrar la demanda de agua caliente de agroindustrias y explotaciones agropecuarias, o para otras aplicaciones en las que se demande agua a temperaturas distintas de la habitual en uso doméstico (60 ºC). En cada caso, los rendimientos y la rentabilidad vendrán determinados por la irradiación de la zona, la temperatura del agua requerida y la curva de demanda de los procesos específicos. ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to contribute to the development and use of solar energy as an alternative for producing hot water in the agribusiness sector. Hot water supply is a key issue for a great many agribusinesses and agricultural holdings. Both hot water demand times and required tank water temperature (rTWT) are highly variable, where the demand profile tends to differ from domestic use. Further research is needed on how differences in rTWT influence the performance and feasibility of these systems. The main objective of this thesis is to characterize the performance and test the feasibility of an evacuated tube collector (ETC) solar water heating (SWH) system providing water at a higher temperature than is usual for such systems. The aim is to determine what influence the rTWT has on the system’s energy efficiency, quantify the volume of hot water that the system is capable of supplying at the respective rTWT and establish whether SWH is feasible as a booster supply system for the different analysed rTWTs. To do this, a prototype water heating system has been designed, installed and commissioned and its performance monitored at different rTWTs under real operating conditions. The quantitative results show that a higher rTWT results in a lower energy supply to the tank, where the differences may be greater than 1000 Wh m-2 d-1 from 40 ºC to 80 ºC for insolation values of around 8000 Wh m-2 d-1 (system efficiency ranges from 73% to 56%). The drop in supply is due to lower collector efficiency and greater heat losses from the pipe system. As regards water supplied at the rTWT, the insolation required for the first withdrawal of water to take place is greater at higher rTWTs, where the time between withdrawals increases and the number of withdrawals decreases throughout the day. As rTWT increases, the volume of water supplied at the rTWT decreases due to factors such as lower collector efficiency, pipe system heat losses, energy stored in the water at below the rTWT and more energy being extracted from the system by water heating. For a rTWT of 80 ºC, much of the energy is stored in the tank at below the rTWT at the end of the day. A booster supply system would be required to take advantage of this energy, as overnight tank heat losses may significantly reduce the usable energy available on the following day. It is often not feasible to use the solar system as a single supply system, especially at high rTWTs, as, unlike the supply from the solar heating system which does not produce hot water on many days of the year because insolation is below the required minimum, hot water demand is not seasonal. On the other hand, investment in a solar system as a booster system to meet part of a plant’s heat energy demand is highly recommended. The solar system’s estimated annual usable energy ranges from 1322 kWh m-2 to 1084 kWh m-2. Cost efficiency would be greatest if there were an existing electric boiler, where the payback period would be just a few years —from 5.7 years at 40 ºC to 7.2 years at 80 ºC—. Cost efficiency is also high if there is an existing diesel boiler with payback periods of under 10 years. In a fictitious industry with a demand of 100 kWh day-1 and an existing diesel boiler, the investment in the solar plant would be highly recommended at any rTWT, with a net present value similar to investment costs —12000 € at 80 ºC and 15000 € at 40 ºC— and a payback period of 10 years. The results of this study are potentially very useful for determining the feasibility of using similar systems for meeting the hot water demand of agribusinesses and arable and livestock farms or for other applications demanding water at temperatures not typical of domestic demand (60ºC). Performance and cost efficiency will be determined by the regional insolation, the required water temperature and the demand curve of the specific processes in each case.

Sistema de comunicaciones para una planta fotovoltaica

Las plantas solares fotovoltaicas, que son cada vez más habituales en nuestra sociedad, necesitan contar con un sistema de comunicaciones que permita la monitorización continua del funcionamiento de los diferentes equipos así como el control remoto de los mismos y la regulación de la producción. En este Proyecto se ha estudiado la estructura eléctrica y constructiva de una planta fotovoltaica genérica, prestando especial atención a los requerimientos que debe reunir el sistema de comunicaciones. El diseño del sistema de comunicaciones se ha realizado sobre una planta solar ficticia aún sin construir analizando su estructura sobre plano y aproximando la topología de red que se necesita implementar. Partiendo de esta estructura y de las cualidades de este tipo de instalaciones se ha realizado un análisis de las tecnologías disponibles, optando por una solución inalámbrica mixta, utilizando enlaces WiMAX y WiFi, manteniendo tecnología cableada únicamente para interconexión cercana de equipos. Esta elección se ha realizado con la intención de dotar a la planta de un sistema fiable, robusto y flexible sin descuidar el factor económico; para eso se ha cuidado la selección de equipamiento, su disposición en la planta y su configuración básica de funcionamiento. A partir de la solución definitiva se ha obtenido un presupuesto económico de la instalación. Se ha completado el diseño mediante simulaciones radioeléctricas, para asegurar un correcto funcionamiento de los diferentes enlaces. The photovoltaic solar power plants, which are becoming more common in our society, need a communications system that allowing continuous monitoring of the operation of the different devices as well as their remote control and regulation of the production. In this Project, electrical structure and construction of a generic photovoltaic solar plant have been studied, paying special attention to the essential requirements which must be fulfilled by the communication system. The communication system design is was carried out assuming that photovoltaic solar plant is fictitious and before its construction, analysing its structure over site plan and approximating the net topology in order to implement it. The analysis of the available technologies was performed basing on this structure as well as the qualities of this kind of facilities. As a result, a wireless mix option with WIMAX and WiFi links was chosen, using cable technology only to the close interconnection between equipments. This choice was made with the intention of giving the plant with a reliable, robust and flexible system without neglecting the economic factor, so that, the selection of equipment, the layout at the plant and operating basic configuration have been paid great attention. From the final solution is obtained a financial budget of the facility. Design is completed by radioelectric simulations to ensure the operation of the several links properly.

Electricity production usíng different photovoltaic technologies working at the same conditíons , a real case

The manufacture of photovoltaic (PV) modules has greatly increased in the past few years. The classical PV module is based on crystalline silicon (e-Si) , nevertheless the so called thinfilm technology is gaining importance each year. In this research paper we present a experimental grid-connected solar plant situated in one of the buildings of the Technical University of Madrid, with two main objectives.

Compatison of S-SI, A-SI and CDTE technologies wording at the same conditions, after the first year of electricity production

Grid connected solar plants are a good opportunity for their use for research as a secondary objective. In countries were feed-in tariffs are still active, it is possible to include in the design of the solar plant elements for its use for research. In the case of the solar plant presented here both objectives are covered. The solar plant of this work is formed by PV modules of three different technologies: Multicrystalline, amorphous and CdTe. In one part of the solar plant, the three technologies are working at the same conditions, not only ambient conditions but also similar voltage and current input to the inverters. Both the commercial and the experimental parts of the solar plant have their own independent inverters with their meters but are finally connected to the same meter to inject. In this work we analyse the results for the first year of operation of the experimental solar plant. Productions of three different technologies in exactly the same conditions are compared and presented. According to the results, all the three technologies have conversion efficiencies dropping when the temperature increases. Amorphous module experiences the lesser reduction, whereas the multicrystalline module suffers the most.

Studies in biogas technology. Part IV. A novel biogas plant incorporating a solar water-heater and solar still

A reduction in the heat losses from the top of the gas holder of a biogas plant has been achieved by the simple device of a transparent cover. The heat losses thus prevented have been deployed to heat a water pond formed on the roof of the gas holder. This solar-heated water is mixed with the organic input for ‘ hot-charging ’ of the biogas plant. A thermal analysis of such a solar water-heater ‘ piggy-backing ’ on the gas holder of a biogas plant has been carried out.To test whether the advantages indicated by the thermal analysis can be realised in practice, a biogas plant of the ASTRA design was modified to incorporate a roof-top solar water-heater. The operation of such a modified plant, even under ‘ worst case ’ onditions, shows a significant improvement in the gas yield compared to the unmodified plant. Hence, the innovation reported here may lead to drastic reductions in the sizes and therefore costs of biogas plants. By making the transparent cover assume a tent-shape, the roof-top solar heater can serve the additional function of a solar still to yield distilled water. The biogas plant-cum-solar water-heater-cum-solar still described here is an example of a spatially integrated hybrid device which is extremely cost-effective.

Environmental analysis of a Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plant hybridised with different fossil and renewable fuels

The environmental performance of a 50 MW parabolic trough Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plant hybridised with different fuels was determined using a Life Cycle Assessment methodology. Six different scenarios were investigated, half of which involved hybridisation with fossil fuels (natural gas, coal and fuel oil), and the other three involved hybridisation with renewable fuels (wheat straw, wood pellets and biogas). Each scenario was compared to a solar-only operation. Nine different environmental categories as well as the Cumulative Energy Demand and the Energy Payback Time (EPT) were evaluated using Simapro software for 1 MWh of electricity produced. The results indicate a worse environmental performance for a CSP plant producing 12% of the electricity from fuel than in a solar-only operation for every indicator, except for the eutrophication and toxicity categories, whose results for the natural gas scenario are slightly better. In the climate change category, the results ranged between 26.9 and 187 kg CO2 eq/MWh, where a solar-only operation had the best results and coal hybridisation had the worst. Considering a weighted single score indicator, the environmental impact of the renewable fuels scenarios is approximately half of those considered in fossil fuels, with the straw scenario showing the best results, and the coal scenario the worstones. EPT for solar-only mode is 1.44 years, while hybridisation scenarios EPT vary in a range of 1.72 -1.83 years for straw and pellets respectively. The fuels with more embodied energy are biomethane and wood pellets.

Frequency control support of a wind-solar isolated system by a hydropower plant with long tail-race tunnel

Pumped storage hydro plants (PSHP) can provide adequate energy storage and frequency regulation capacities in isolated power systems having significant renewable energy resources. Due to its high wind and solar potential, several plans have been developed for La Palma Island in the Canary archipelago, aimed at increasing the penetration of these energy sources. In this paper, the performance of the frequency control of La Palma power system is assessed, when the demand is supplied by the available wind and solar generation with the support of a PSHP which has been predesigned for this purpose. The frequency regulation is provided exclusively by the PSHP. Due to topographic and environmental constraints, this plant has a long tail-race tunnel without a surge tank. In this configuration, the effects of pressure waves cannot be neglected and, therefore, usual recommendations for PID governor tuning provide poor performance. A PI governor tuning criterion is proposed for the hydro plant and compared with other criteria according to several performance indices. Several scenarios considering solar and wind energy penetration have been simulated to check the plant response using the proposed criterion. This tuning of the PI governor maintains La Palma system frequency within grid code requirements.

An interdisciplinary approach to designing and evaluating a hybrid solar-biomass power plant

Purpose: Energy security is a major concern for India and many rural areas remain un-electrified. Thus, innovations in sustainable technologies to provide energy services are required. Biomass and solar energy in particular are resources that are widely available and underutilised in India. This paper aims to provide an overview of a methodology that was developed for designing and assessing the feasibility of a hybrid solar-biomass power plant in Gujarat. Design/methodology/approach: The methodology described is a combination of engineering and business management studies used to evaluate and design solar thermal collectors for specific applications and locations. For the scenario of a hybrid plant, the methodology involved: the analytical hierarchy process, for solar thermal technology selection; a cost-exergy approach, for design optimisation; quality function deployment, for designing and evaluating a novel collector - termed the elevation linear Fresnel reflector (ELFR); and case study simulations, for analysing alternative hybrid plant configurations. Findings: The paper recommended that for a hybrid plant in Gujarat, a linear Fresnel reflector of 14,000 m2 aperture is integrated with a 3 tonne per hour biomass boiler, generating 815 MWh per annum of electricity for nearby villages and 12,450 tonnes of ice per annum for local fisheries and food industries. However, at the expense of a 0.3 ¢/kWh increase in levelised energy costs, the ELFR can increase savings of biomass (100 t/a) and land (9 ha/a). Research limitations/implications: The research reviewed in this paper is primarily theoretical and further work will need to be undertaken to specify plant details such as piping layout, pump sizing and structure, and assess plant performance during real operational conditions. Originality/value: The paper considers the methodology adopted proved to be a powerful tool for integrating technology selection, optimisation, design and evaluation and promotes interdisciplinary methods for improving sustainable engineering design and energy management. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.