Sources of antibiotic resistance in the environment

The discovery of antibiotics was a major breakthrough in medicine. However, short after their introduction in clinical practice resistant bacteria were detected. Nowadays, antibiotic resistance constitutes a serious public health problem. In hospital settings, with high resistance levels, reducing drastically the therapeutic options. Carbapenems are last-resort antibiotics used in Portugal, only in hospitals, to treat serious infections. Bacterial resistance towards this class of antibiotics has increased during last years. In Gram-negative bacteria the production of carbapenemases is a common resistance mechanism. OXA-48 is a carbapenemase of Ambler class D and represents a major concern for human health. It is frequently detected in clinical isolates of Enterobacteriaceae. There are few studies suggesting that genes encoding for OXA-48 variants originated from genes present in the chromosome of members of genus Shewanella, and have disseminated to Enterobacteriaceae members, associated with mobile genetic elements. The aim of this study was to characterize strains from different sources of Shewanella to confirm its role as OXA-48 progenitor. For this, the phylogenetic affiliation of 33 strains of Shewanella was performed by 16SrDNA and gyrB sequencing. The most common species were S. hafniensis and S. xiamenensis, but also S. aestuarii, S. baltica, S. indica, S. haliotis, S. putrefaciens, S. algidipiscicola, S. irciniae, S. algae and S. fodinae were identified. blaOXA-48-like genes were detected in 21 isolates: S. hafniensis (8/8), S. xiamenensis (5/5), S. baltica (4/4), S. algae (1/1), S. fodinae (1/1), S. putrefaciens (1/2) and S. algidipiscicola (1/2). Sequence analysis revealed that genes encoded enzymes identical to OXA-48, OXA-181 and OXA-204 but also new variants differing from OXA-48 from 2 to 81 aminoacids. Genetic context analysis revealed the C15 gene upstream and lysR gene downstream, identical to what has been identified so far flanking blaOXA-48-like genes in Shewanella spp. The assessment of antibiotic susceptibility was performed for all isolates using the disk diffusion method. In general, it was observed a great sensitivity for all antibiotics except to amoxicillin and aztreonam. Multidrug resistance was detected in only 1 isolate. Other resistance genes and the presence of integrons were not identified. Plasmids were detected in 30.3% isolates (10/ 33). These results reinforce the role of Shewanella spp. as origin of blaOXA-48-like genes.

The lender of last resort: A 21st Century approach

The object of this paper is to analyze rigorously the role of a Lender ofLast Resort by providing a framework where the distinction betweeninsolvency and illiquidity is not clearly cut. Determining the optimalLender of Last Resort policy requires a careful modeling of the structureof the interbank market and of the closure policy. In our set up, theresults depend upon the existence of moral hazard. If the main source ofmoral hazard is the banks lack of incentives to screen loans, then theLender of Last Resort may have to intervene to improve the e¢ciency of anunsecured interbank market; if instead, the main source of moral hazard isloans monitoring, then the interbank market should be secured and theLender of Last Resort should never intervene.

Firms vs. insiders as traders of last resort

We explore the role of corporate insiders vs. firms as traders of last resort. We develop a simple model of insider trading in which insiders provide price support, as well as liquidity, in security markets. Consistent with the model predictions we find that in the US markets insiders trading activities have a clear impact on return distributions. Furthermore, we provide empirical evidence on insiders transactions and firm transactions affecting returns in a different manner. In particular, while insiders transactions (both purchases and sales) have a strong impact on skewness in the short run and to a lesser extent in short run volatility, company repurchases only have a clear impact on volatility, both in the short and the long run. We provide explanations for this asymmetry.

Digest of insurance cases, embracing all decisions in any manner affecting insurance companies or their contract upon whatever plan or for whatever purpose their business may be conducted, covering all United States courts, namely the United States Supreme Court, the United States Circuit Courts of Appeal, and United States Circuit and District Courts--all courts of last resort and other appellate courts of the various states and territories and District of Columbia--all the highest judicial tribunals of all other English-speaking countries and all inferior courts within the foregoing jurisdictions whose decisions are reported--also reference to all annotations and leading articles on insurance in all law journals published in the English language.

Lettered on cover: Insurance digest.

Western reporter ... : all cases determined in the courts of last resort, as follows: Ohio Supreme Court, Indiana Supreme Court, Illinois Supreme Court, Missouri Sup. Ct. and Courts of Appeals

Vol. 15, 560 p., without t.p. or index. In the L.C. copy, only the first number has cover title

American negligence cases a complete collection of all reported negligence cases decided in the United States Supreme Court, the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, all the United States circuit and district courts, and the courts of last resort of all the states and territories, from the earliest times, with selections from the intermediate courts. [1789-1897] Topically arranged, with notes of English cases and annotations.

Editors: v. 1-10, T. F. Hamilton--v. 11-16, W. J. Eagle--v. 17, Publisher's editorial staff.

Summaries of constitutional and statutory provisions granting administrative and supervisory powers to chief justices and courts of last resort.

"BX-293."

Notes on the United States reports; a brief chronological digest of all points determined in the decisions of the Supreme court, with notes showing the influence, following and present authority of each case, as disclosed by the citations comprising all citing cases in that court, the intermediate and inferior federal courts, and the courts of last resort of all the states,

Vol. 13, Index to the twelve volumes of Notes on United States reports, embracing all propositions of law laid down in Supreme Court decisions, 2 Dallas to 172 United States, by Walter Malins Rose and W. A. Sutherland

Rose's notes on the United States Supreme court reports (2 Dallas to 259 United States reports) showing the present value as authority of all cases therein reported as disclosed by all subsequent citations since the revised edition in all the courts of last resort, both federal and state, and in the annotations in American law reports, lawyers' reports annotated, annotated cases, British ruling cases, negligence and compensation cases annotated with parallel references to the above-mentioned annotated cases, the lawyers' edition of the U. S. reports and the reporter system,

Mode of access: Internet.

Rose's notes on the United States Supreme court reports (2 Dallas to 241 United States reports) showing the present value as authority of all cases therein reported as disclosed by all subsequent citations in all the courts of last resort, both federal and state, and in the annotations in American decisions, American reports, American state reports, Annotated cases (American and English), Lawyers' reports annotated, English ruling cases, British ruling cases, Negligence and compensation cases annotated, with parallel references to the above-mentioned Annotated cases, the Lawyers' edition of the U. S. reports and the Reporter system,

Kept up to date by supplements

Central reporter... : all cases determined in the courts of last resort.

"New York. Court of Appeals; New Jersey. Supreme Court. Court of Errors and Appeals, Court of Chancery and Prerogative Court; Pennsylvania. Supreme Court; Delaware. Superior Court, Court of Errors and Appeals and Court of Chancery; Maryland. Court of Appeals; District of Columbia. Supreme Court. From September, 1885."

American and English corporation cases ; a collection of all corporation cases, both private and municipal (excepting railway cases), decided in the courts of last resort in the United States, England, and Canada [1883-1894] ..

Editors : Vols. 1-8, L. Lewis, jr., and J. H. Merrill.--v. 9-16, A. Hamilton.--v. 17-18, J. H. Merrill.--v. 19-20, 31-48, W. M. McKinney.--v. 21-23, J. M. Kerr and W. M. McKinney.--v. 24-30, J. C. Thomson and W. M. McKinney

The American and English railroad cases; a collection of all the railroad cases in the courts of last resort in America and England

Mode of access: Internet.

The American reports ; containing all decisions of general interest decided in the courts of last resort of the several states [1869-1887]. / Extra annotated by the Editorial department of the Lawyers co-operative publishing company.

In the original edition, published in 1871-88, the notes and references for v. 1-27 were I. G. Thompson, and for v. 28-60 by Irving Browne.

Post-Crisis Belarus: Marxism and the Lender of Last Resort

Existing literature has examined the predictions and proscriptions of Karl Marx in response to the 2008 global financial crisis. However, the suggestions put forth by the Marxist-leaning literature never took hold and state-level banking and finance policies have remained largely unchanged. While many criticisms of Marxism exist, this paper examines Belarus, a ‘neo-communist’ or ‘market-socialist’ state, to provide a new perspective on the continuation of capitalism in the United States and Europe. In the case of Belarus, the International Monetary Fund and the Eurasian Economic Community's Anti-Crisis Fund provided both the critical liquidity needed to temporarily quell the effects of the financial crisis. Their demands meant that Belarus agreed to speed its move away from the Soviet-era finance and banking policies and more towards its western capitalist neighbors. Its failure to implement these policies further hurt its recovery. Examining Belarus' path to and out of its financial crisis makes apparent that the role of the international lender of last resort (LOLR). The LOLR acts as a key element in protecting states embroiled in the financial crisis from facing the possibility of making the difficult policy changes put forth by the Marxist literature. By ignoring its promises under the loan conditions from its LOLRs, Belarus moved further from the recovery promised by the Marxist suggestions.