Influence of food components on lipid metabolism: scenarios and perspective on the control and prevention of dyslipidemias

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the main causes of death in the Western world. Among the risk factors that are modifiable by diet, for reducing cardiovascular disease risks, the total plasma concentrations of cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-C, and HDL-C are the most important. Dietary measures can balance these components of the lipid profile thus reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. The main food components that affect the lipid profile and can be modified by diet are the saturated and trans fats, unsaturated fats, cholesterol, phytosterols, plant protein, and soluble fiber. A wealth of evidence suggests that saturated and trans fats and cholesterol in the diet raise the total plasma cholesterol and LDL-C. Trans fats also reduce HDL-C, an important lipoprotein for mediating the reverse cholesterol transport. On the other hand, phytosterols, plant proteins, isoflavones, and soluble fiber are protective diet factors against cardiovascular diseases by modulating plasma lipoprotein levels. These food components at certain concentrations are able to reduce the total cholesterol, TG, and LDL-C and raise the plasma levels of HDL-C. Therefore, diet is an important tool for the prevention and control of cardiovascular diseases, and should be taken into account as a whole, i.e., not only the food components that modulate plasma concentrations of lipoproteins, but also the diet content of macro nutrients and micronutrients should be considered.

Protective effect of carbon dioxide against bacterial peritonitis induced in rats

Carbon dioxide (CO(2)) has been used in the food industry as an antimicrobial agent. This study aimed to investigate whether CO(2) pneumoperitoneum might act similarly as an antimicrobial agent in the infected peritoneal cavity. Peritonitis was induced in 58 rats by intraabdominal injection of an Escherichia coli inoculum (6 x 105 colony-forming units [CFU]/ml). Control rats were injected with saline solution. The rats were randomly divided into four groups: rat control (RC, n = 15), bacterial inoculation control (BIC, n = 10), bacterial inoculation and laparotomy (BIL, n = 17), and bacterial inoculation and CO(2) pneumoperitoneum (BIP, n = 16). The survival rates and histopathologic changes in the abdominal wall muscles, spleen, liver, intestines, and omentum were evaluated, and the samples were classified as ""preserved"" or ""inflamed"" (acute inflammation or tissue regeneration). The survival rates for the four groups were as follows: RC (100%), BIP (75%), BIL (53%), and BIC (30%). With regard to survival rates, statistically significant differences were observed between the following groups: RC and BIC (p = 0.0009), RC and BIL (p = 0.0045), BIP and BIC (p = 0.0332), and RC and BIP (p = 0.0470). No significant differences regarding survival rates were observed between the BIL and BIC groups or between the BIP and BIL groups. With regard to the number of inflamed samples per group, a statistically significant difference was observed between the BIC and RC groups and the BIL and RC groups (p = 0.05). Carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum has a protective effect against bacterial peritonitis induced in rats.

Evaluation of neuroprotective effects of natural extracts obtained from portuguese agro-food residues

Countries are currently faced with problems derived from changes in lifespan and an increase in lifestyle-related diseases. Neurodegenerative disorders such Parkinson’s (PD) and Alzheimer’s (AD) diseases are an increasing problem in aged societies. Data from World Alzheimer Report 2011 indicate that 36 million people worldwide are living with dementia. Oxidative stress has been associated with the development of AD and PD. Therefore there is interest to search for effective compounds or therapies to combat the oxidative damage in these diseases. Current evidence strongly supports a contribution of phenolic compounds present in fruits and vegetables to the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases such AD and PD. The industrial processing of a wide variety of fruits results in the accumulation of by-products without commercial value. Opuntia ficus-indica (cactus pear) is consumed fresh and processed like in juice. Prunnus avium (sweet cherry) is consumed fresh but the organoleptics characteristics of the fruits leads to the smaller and ragged fruits have no commercial value. Fruit extracts of both species has described to be rich in phenolic compounds and to have high antioxidant activities due to its composition. The aim of this work was assessing the efficacy of O. ficus-indica and P. avium by-products extracts obtained with conventional solvent extraction and pressurized liquid extraction in a neurodegeneration cell model. All extracts have protected neuroblastoma cells from H2O2-induced death at low, non-toxic levels, which approach to physiologically-relevant serum concentration. However, cherry extract has a slighter neuroprotective activity. The protective effect of Opuntia extracts are not conducted by a direct antioxidant activity since there are not decreases in intracellular ROS levels in cell treated with extracts and challenged with H2O2, while cherry extract neuroprotection seems to be due to a direct scavenging activity. Extracts from different biological matrixes seems to protect neuronal cells trough different cellular mechanisms.

Consumer Focused Review of Men's Food Behaviour

Increasing attention has been paid to the burden of ill-health experienced by men in many Western countries. In Europe and internationally, the Republic of Ireland has been leading the way by developing a national policy for men’s health. In most countries around the world, women now have a longer life expectancy than men. Similarly, on the island of Ireland, in spite of recent increases in men’s life expectancy, men continue to have higher death rates at all ages and from all leading causes of death. In Northern Ireland, in 2010, men’s life expectancy at birth was 77.08 years (81.53 years for women), while in the Republic of Ireland, figures published in 2009 revealed that men’s life expectancy at birth was 76.8 years (compared to 81.6 years for women). Key health issues for men include circulatory diseases, cancers and respiratory diseases. In relation to food and health, obesity has been highlighted as a major concern in relation to men’s health. While physiological difference between men and women explain some of the variation in the rate and/or onset of disease (e.g., protective effects of oestrogen in relation to the onset of cardiovascular diseases), other factors, such as socio-cultural influences, which are the main focus of this report, also play an important role. It is acknowledged that men and women experience different influences and motivations with respect to their knowledge and attitudes of and behaviours towards food and health. The purpose of this report is therefore not to compare men with women or to encourage men to model themselves on women in relation to their food and health behaviour. Rather, the goal is to provide recommendations to improve communications, resources, interventions, education and services targeted at boys and men in relation to food.

Impact of physical activity on energy balance, food intake and choice in normal weight and obese children in the setting of acute social stress: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Psychological stress negatively influences food intake and food choices, thereby contributing to the development of childhood obesity. Physical activity can also moderate eating behavior and influence calorie intake. However, it is unknown if acute physical activity influences food intake and overall energy balance after acute stress exposure in children. We therefore investigated the impact of acute physical activity on overall energy balance (food intake minus energy expenditure), food intake, and choice in the setting of acute social stress in normal weight (NW) and overweight/obese (OW/OB) children as well as the impact of psychological risk factors. METHOD: After receiving written consent from their parents, 26 NW (BMI < 90(th) percentile) and 24 7-to 11-year-old OW (n = 5)/OB (n = 19, BMI ≥ 90(th) percentile) children were randomly allocated using computer-generated numbers (1:1, after stratification for weight status) to acute moderate physical or to sedentary activity for 30 min. Afterwards, all children were exposed to an acute social stressor. Children and their parents completed self-report questionnaires. At the end of the stressor, children were allowed to eat freely from a range of 12 different foods (6 sweet/6 salty; each of low/high caloric density). Energy balance, food intake/choice and obesity-related psychological risk factors were assessed. RESULTS: Lower overall energy balance (p = 0.019) and a decreased choice of low density salty foods (p < 0.001) in NW children compared with OW/OB children was found after acute moderate physical activity but not sedentary activity. Independent of their allocation, OW/OB children ate more high density salty foods (104 kcal (34 to 173), p = 0.004) following stress. They scored higher on impulsive behavior (p = 0.005), restrained eating (p < 0.001) and parental corporal punishment (p = 0.03), but these psychological factors were not related to stress-induced food intake/choice. Positive parenting tended to be related to lower intake of sweet high density food (-132 kcal, -277 to 2, p = 0.054). CONCLUSIONS: In the setting of stress, acute moderate physical activity can address energy balance in children, a benefit which is especially pronounced in the OW/OB. Positive parenting may act as a protective factor preventing stress-induced eating of comfort food. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov NCT01693926 The study was a pilot study of a project funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (CRSII3_147673).

Protective effects of maternal nutritional supplementation with lactoferrin on growth and brain metabolism.

Background:Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a major risk factor for both perinatal and long-term morbidity. Bovine lactoferrin (bLf) is a major milk glycoprotein considered as a pleiotropic functional nutrient. The impact of maternal supplementation with bLf on IUGR-induced sequelae, including inadequate growth and altered cerebral development, remains unknown.Methods:IUGR was induced through maternal dexamethasone infusion (100 μg/kg during last gestational week) in rats. Maternal supplementation with bLf (0.85% in food pellet) was provided during both gestation and lactation. Pup growth was monitored, and Pup brain metabolism and gene expression were studied using in vivo (1)H NMR spectroscopy, quantitative PCR, and microarray in the hippocampus at postnatal day (PND)7.Results:Maternal bLf supplementation did not change gestational weight but increased the birth body weight of control pups (4%) with no effect on the IUGR pups. Maternal bLf supplementation allowed IUGR pups to recover a normalized weight at PND21 (weaning) improving catch-up growth. Significantly altered levels of brain metabolites (γ-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, N-acetylaspartate, and N-acetylaspartylglutamate) and transcripts (brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT-1), and glutamate receptors) in IUGR pups were normalized with maternal bLf supplementation.Conclusion:Our data suggest that maternal bLf supplementation is a beneficial nutritional intervention able to revert some of the IUGR-induced sequelae, including brain hippocampal changes.

From pathogen defence to food allergy; The multiple facets of the mucosal immune system

Résumé destiné à un large public Le système immunitaire associé aux muqueuses gastro-intestinales doit être capable de protéger notre organisme contre l'invasion de pathogènes. Parallèlement, il doit identifier en Cant que tels, des composés inoffensifs comme la nourriture ou les milliards de bactéries qui résident dans notre intestin. Le travail présenté ici aborde ces deux aspects essentiels au bon fonctionnement de notre muqueuse intestinale. Dans une première partie, la protéine nommée pièce sécrétoire a été étudiée pour ses propriétés protectrices contre le pathogène viral rotavirus. Le rôle de la pièce sécrétoire est de transporter les anticorps que nous produisons vers la surface des muqueuses. En dehors de cette fonction bien connue, il se peut que cette protéine soit également capable de protéger notre organisme contre certains virus. L'hypothèse de travail était donc que la pièce sécrétoire se lie directement au virus, l'empêchant ainsi d'infecter des cellules épithéliales de l'intestin. En utilisant différentes techniques biochimiques, cette hypothèse s'est révélée fausse car aucune interaction entre la pièce sécrétoire et le virus n'a pu être observée, et logiquement, aucune protection n'a pu prendre place. En revanche, la pièce sécrétoire se lie à d'autres structures pathogéniques et permet ainsi de neutraliser leurs effets néfastes. La pièce sécrétoire participe donc activement à la protection de nos muqueuses, en plus de son rôle de transporteur. La deuxième partie de ce travail avait pour sujet les réactions inappropriées que le système immunitaire induit parfois contre un aliment, ou, autrement dit, les allergies alimentaires. Un modèle d'allergie alimentaire à donc été développé chez la souris et a permis de mesurer plusieurs symptômes et facteurs liés à l'allergie. Puis, ce modèle a été utilisé afin de tester les effets bénéfiques d'une bactérie lactique, dite probiotique, sur le développement de l'allergie. Il a été observé que, sous certaines circonstances, l'administration de la bactérie lactique protégeait entièrement les souris contre les réactions allergiques. L'effet bénéfique dépend donc du probiotique mais également d'autres facteurs encore inconnus â ce jour. Cette étude ouvre la voie sur la compréhension des mécanismes liés aux allergies alimentaires et sur l'impact que peuvent avoir les bactéries probiotiques sur cette maladie. Résumé Le système immunitaire associé aux muqueuses intestinales doit être capable de différencier les antigènes inoffensifs tels que 1a nourriture ou les bactéries commensales des microorganismes potentiellement dangereux. Cet aspect est essentiel pour le maintien de l'homéostase intestinale et fait l'objet du travail présenté ici. Dans un premier projet, les propriétés protectrices de la protéine appelée pièce sécrétoire (SC) ont été étudiées. SC est une protéine connue pour le transport des immunoglobulines à la surface des muqueuses. Cette protéine est fortement glycosylée paz des sucres complexes, ce qui nous a mené à postuler que SC puisse interagir avec le pathogène rotavirus. Cette hypothèse était soutenue par le fait que ce virus adhère aux cellules épithéliales par des résidus glycosylés. Des analyses biochimiques et biologiques ont démontré qu'aucune interaction entre SC et le virus ne prenait place, et que par conséquent SC n'offrait aucune protection contre ce pathogène. En revanche, SC interagit avec d'autres structures pathogéniques, comme la toxine A de Clostridium difficile, et la molécule d'adhésion intimine de la bactérie entéropathogène Escherichia coli. La liaison se fait par l'intermédiaire des sucres et confère ainsi une protection contre ces pathogènes. Ainsi, SC a été identifié comme agent neutralisant au niveau de l'intestin. La deuxième partie de ce travail abordait le sujet des allergies alimentaires, et avait pour but de tester les effets bénéfiques potentiels d'une bactérie probiotique, Lactobacillus paracasei NCC2461, contre les réactions allergiques. Un modèle marin d'allergie alimentaire a été mis au point, permettant de mesurer des immunoglobulines E, des symptômes allergiques, et la dégranulation de mastocytes. Lorsque le probiotique a été administré aux souris, celles-ci ont été complètement protégées des réactions allergiques dans une première expérience. Cependant, cette protection n'a pas été reproduite et suggère que des facteurs environnementaux encore inconnus sont critiques pour que le probiotique agisse positivement. Ce travail a permis de mettre en évidence la complexité de l'approche des traitements liés aux probiotiques et ouvre la voie sur la compréhension des mécanismes liés à l'allergie. Abstract The mucosal immune system associated to the gastrointestinal mucosa must efficiently distinguish between innocuous antigens, such as food proteins and commensal bacteria and potentially infectious agents. The work presented here deals with these two essential aspects guaranteeing intestinal homeostasis. In the first part of this work, the protective properties of secretory component (SC) toward the pathogen rotavirus were investigated. SC, which allows the transport of polymeric immunoglobulins (Ig) to mucosal surfaces, is highly glycosylated with complex glycan structures. The abundance and the nature of these carbohydrates led us to speculate that SC might interact with rotavirus, which is known to bind target cells with glycan receptors. Using various biological and biochemical techniques, we demonstrated that SC did not interact with rotaviruses, nor protected epithelial cells from infection. However, SC was shown to bind to Clostridium difficile toxin A and to the enteropathogenic Echerischia coli adhesion molecule intimin in a glycan-dependent fashion. These interactions allow in vitro protection of epithelial cells using physiological concentrations of SC. These data identify SC as a microbial scavenger at mucosal surfaces, and in the context of secretory IgA, further enhance the neutralising properties of the complex. The second project was inscribed in the domain of food allergy and aimed to test the modulatory functions of a probiotic strain of Lactobacillus paracasei toward allergic reactions. A model of food-mediated allergy was developed in the mouse using mucosal sensitisation. Several parameters associated to allergy were quantified after allergen challenge, and included allergen-specific IgE, allergic signs like diarrhea and temperature drop, and degranulation of mast cells. Administration of the probiotic strain was shown to completely protect mice from allergic reactions. However, these data were not reproduced, suggesting that unknown environmental factors are required so that protection mediated by the probiotic strain occurs. This study paves the way to the understanding of the mechanisms associated to allergy, and highlights the tremendous complexity that probiotic treatments will have to face.

Gut physiology mediates a trade-off between adaptation to malnutrition and susceptibility to food-borne pathogens.

The animal gut plays a central role in tackling two common ecological challenges, nutrient shortage and food-borne parasites, the former by efficient digestion and nutrient absorption, the latter by acting as an immune organ and a barrier. It remains unknown whether these functions can be independently optimised by evolution, or whether they interfere with each other. We report that Drosophila melanogaster populations adapted during 160 generations of experimental evolution to chronic larval malnutrition became more susceptible to intestinal infection with the opportunistic bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas entomophila. However, they do not show suppressed immune response or higher bacterial loads. Rather, their increased susceptibility to P. entomophila is largely mediated by an elevated predisposition to loss of intestinal barrier integrity upon infection. These results may reflect a trade-off between the efficiency of nutrient extraction from poor food and the protective function of the gut, in particular its tolerance to pathogen-induced damage.

Influence of food components on lipid metabolism: scenarios and perspective on the control and prevention of dyslipidemias

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the main causes of death in the Western world. Among the risk factors that are modifiable by diet, for reducing cardiovascular disease risks, the total plasma concentrations of cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL-C, and HDL-C are the most important. Dietary measures can balance these components of the lipid profile thus reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. The main food components that affect the lipid profile and can be modified by diet are the saturated and trans fats, unsaturated fats, cholesterol, phytosterols, plant protein, and soluble fiber. A wealth of evidence suggests that saturated and trans fats and cholesterol in the diet raise the total plasma cholesterol and LDL-C. Trans fats also reduce HDL-C, an important lipoprotein for mediating the reverse cholesterol transport. On the other hand, phytosterols, plant proteins, isoflavones, and soluble fiber are protective diet factors against cardiovascular diseases by modulating plasma lipoprotein levels. These food components at certain concentrations are able to reduce the total cholesterol, TG, and LDL-C and raise the plasma levels of HDL-C. Therefore, diet is an important tool for the prevention and control of cardiovascular diseases, and should be taken into account as a whole, i.e., not only the food components that modulate plasma concentrations of lipoproteins, but also the diet content of macro nutrients and micronutrients should be considered.

Evaluation of antioxidants stability by thermal analysis and its protective effect in heated edible vegetable oil

In this work, through the use of thermal analysis techniques, the thermal stabilities of some antioxidants were investigated, in order to evaluate their resistance to thermal oxidation in oils, by heating canola vegetable oil, and to suggest that antioxidants would be more appropriate to increase the resistance of vegetable oils in the thermal degradation process in frying. The techniques used were: Thermal Gravimetric (TG) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analyses, as well as an allusion to a possible protective action of the vegetable oils, based on the thermal oxidation of canola vegetable oil in the laboratory under constant heating at 180 ºC/8 hours for 10 days. The studied antioxidants were: ascorbic acid, sorbic acid, citric acid, sodium erythorbate, BHT (3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxytoluene), BHA (2, 3-tert-butyl-4-methoxyphenol), TBHQ (tertiary butyl hydroquinone), PG (propyl gallate) - described as antioxidants by ANVISA and the FDA; and also the phytic acid antioxidant and the SAIB (sucrose acetate isobutyrate) additive, which is used in the food industry, in order to test its behavior as an antioxidant in vegetable oil. The following antioxidants: citric acid, sodium erythorbate, BHA, BHT, TBHQ and sorbic acid decompose at temperatures below 180 ºC, and therefore, have little protective action in vegetable oils undergoing frying processes. The antioxidants below: phytic acid, ascorbic acid and PG, are the most resistant and begin their decomposition processes at temperatures between 180 and 200 ºC. The thermal analytical techniques have also shown that the SAIB antioxidant is the most resistant to oxidative action, and it can be a useful choice in the thermal decomposition prevention of edible oils, improving stability regarding oxidative processes.

Marine yeast Candida MCCF 101 as feed supplement in aquaculture: nutritional quality, optimization of large scale production and evaluation of its protective effect on Koi carp from Aeromonas infection

Marine yeast have been regarded as safe and showing a beneficial impact on biotechnological process. It provides better nutritional and dietary values indicating their potential application as feed supplements in aquaculture. Brown et al. (1996) evaluated all the marine yeasts characterised with high protein content, carbohydrate, good amino acid composition and high levels of saturated fats. However, there is paucity of information on marine yeasts as feed supplements and no feed formulation has been found either in literature or in market supplemented with them. This statement supported by Zhenming et al. (2006) reported still a lack of feed composed of single cell protein (SCP) from marine yeasts with high content of protein and other nutrients. Recent research has shown that marine yeasts also have highly potential uses in food, feed, medical and biofuel industries as well as marine biotechnology (Chi et al., 2009; 2010). Sajeevan et al. (2006; 2009a) and Sarlin and Philip (2011) demonstrates that the marine yeasts Candida sake served as a high quality, inexpensive nutrient source and it had proven immunostimulatory properties for cultured shrimps. This strain has been made part of the culture collection of National Centre for Aquatic Animal Health, Cochin University of Science and Technology as Candida MCCF 101. Over the years marine yeasts have been gaining increased attention in animal feed industry due to their nutritional value and immune boosting property.Therefore, the present study was undertaken, and focused on the nutritional quality, optimization of large scale production and evaluation of its protective effect on Koi carp from Aeromonas infection

Antioxidant activity and protective effects of green and dark coffee components against human low density lipoprotein oxidation

The in vitro antioxidant activity and the protective effect against human low density lipoprotein oxidation of coffees prepared using different degrees of roasting was evaluated. Coffees with the highest amount of brown pigments (dark coffee) showed the highest peroxyl radical scavenging activity. These coffees also protected human low-density lipoprotein (LDL) against oxidation, although green coffee extracts showed more protection. In a different experiment, coffee extracts were incubated with human plasma prior to isolation of LDL particles. This showed, for the first time, that incubation of plasma with dark, but not green coffee extracts protected the LDL against oxidation by copper or by the thermolabile azo compound AAPH. Antioxidants in the dark coffee extracts must therefore have become associated with the LDL particles. Brown compounds, especially those derived from the Maillard reaction, are the compounds most likely to be responsible for this activity.

Glucosinolates in brassica vegetables: the influence of the food supply chain on intake, bioavailability and human health

Glucosinolates (GLSs) are found in Brassica vegetables. Examples of these sources include cabbage, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, cauliflower and various root vegetables (e.g. radish and turnip). A number of epidemiological studies have identified an inverse association between consumption of these vegetables and the risk of colon and rectal cancer. Animal studies have shown changes in enzyme activities and DNA damage resulting from consumption of Brassica vegetables or isothiocyanates, the breakdown products (BDP) of GLSs in the body. Mechanistic studies have begun to identify the ways in which the compounds may exert their protective action but the relevance of these studies to protective effects in the human alimentary tract is as yet unproven. In vitro studies with a number of specific isothiocyanates have suggested mechanisms that might be the basis of their chemoprotective effects. The concentration and composition of the GLSs in different plants, but also within a plant (e.g. in the seeds, roots or leaves), can vary greatly and also changes during plant development. Furthermore, the effects of various factors in the supply chain of Brassica vegetables including breeding, cultivation, storage and processing on intake and bioavailability of GLSs are extensively discussed in this paper.

Inulin: a prebiotic functional food ingredient

The human gut microbiota is increasingly recognized as playing a central role in human health and disease. This dichotomous relationship with the host forms a central theme in this review, which addresses how we may divert the gut microbiota away from some of its more harmful activities towards beneficial interactions with the human host. We describe the concept of prebiotics, which use specific dietary carbohydrates to increase the numbers of what are seen as beneficial bacteria within the colon, in a selective manner. Specifically, the use of β(2-1) fructans or inulin in general, and certain of its fractions in particular as prebiotics, will be described. Prebiotic fructans constitute efficacious functional foods and there is strong evidence supporting the selectivity of their fermentation within the human gut microbiota, resulting in an increase in the relative numbers of Bifidobacterium spp. There is also considerable evidence, mainly from animal studies but also in humans, that dietary supplementation with prebiotic fructans, through modulation of the microbiota, plays a protective role in colon cancer, heart disease and bone health. However, the mechanisms by which this prebiotic microbiota modulation mediates such diverse health outcomes remain unclear. The future challenge facing the field of prebiotic functional foods will be the elucidation of these mechanisms of action. Recent high resolution bioomics technologies, especially metabonomics, provide the tools necessary to define the metabolic consequences of prebiotic microbiota modulation.

Dairy products in the food chain: their impact on health

Milk is a complex and complete food containing an array of essential nutrients that contribute toward a healthy, balanced diet. Numerous epidemiological studies have revealed that high consumption of milk and dairy products may have protective effects against coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke, diabetes, certain cancers (such as colorectal and bladder cancers), and dementia, although the mechanisms of action are unclear. Despite this epidemiological evidence, milk fatty acid profiles often lead to a negative perception of milk and dairy products. However, altering the fatty acid profile of milk by changing the dairy cow diet is a successful strategy, and intervention studies have shown that this approach may lead to further benefits of milk/dairy consumption. Overall, evidence suggests individuals who consume a greater amount of milk and dairy products have a slightly better health advantage than those who do not consume milk and dairy products.