The ecology of Bacillus thuringiensis on the Phylloplane: colonization from soil, plasmid transfer, and interaction with larvae of Pieris brassicae

Seedlings of clover (Triflorium hybridum) were colonized by Bacillus thuringiensis when spores and seeds were co-inoculated into soil. Both a strain isolated in the vegetative form from the phylloplane of clover, 2810-S-4, and a laboratory strain, HD-1, were able to colonize clover to a density of about 1000 CFU/g leaf when seeds were sown in sterile soil and to a density of about 300 CFU/g leaf in nonsterile soil. A strain lacking the characteristic insecticidal crystal proteins produced a similar level of colonization over a 5-week period as the wild type strain, indicating that crystal production was not a mitigating factor during colonization. A small plasmid, pBC16, was transferred between strains of B. thuringiensis when donor and recipient strains were sprayed in vegetative form onto leaves of clover and pak choi (Brassica campestris var. chinensis). The rate of transfer was about 0.1 transconjugants/recipient and was dependent on the plant species. The levels of B. thuringiensis that naturally colonized leaves of pak choi produced negligible levels of mortality in third instar larvae of Pieris brassicae feeding on the plants. Considerable multiplication occurred in the excreted frass but not in the guts of living insects. Spores in the frass could be a source of recolonization from the soil and be transferred to other plants. These findings illustrate a possible cycle, not dependent on insect pathology, by which B. thuringiensis diversifies and maintains itself in nature.

Sensitive detection of bacterial transcription initiation sites and differentiation from RNA processing sites in the pheromone-induced plasmid transfer system of Enterococcus faecalis.

A method was developed to detect 5' ends of bacterial RNAs expressed at low levels and to differentiate newly initiated transcripts from processed transcripts produced in vivo. The procedure involves use of RNA ligase to link a specific oligoribonucleotide to the 5' ends of cellular RNAs, followed by production of cDNA and amplification of the gene of interest by PCR. The method was used to identify the precise sites of transcription initiation within a 10-kb region of the pheromone-inducible conjugative plasmid pCF10 of Enterococcus faecalis. Results confirmed the 5' end of a very abundant, constitutively produced transcript (from prgQ) that had been mapped previously by primer extension and defined the initiation point of a less abundant, divergently transcribed message (from prgX). The method also showed that the 5' end of a pheromone-inducible transcript (prgB) that had been mapped by primer extension was generated by processing rather than new initiation. In addition, the results provided evidence for two promoters, 3 and 5 kb upstream of prgB, and indicated that only the transcripts originating 5 kb upstream may be capable of extending to prgB.

Impact of antibiotics on conjugational resistance gene transfer in Staphylococcus aureus in sewage.

Ohlsen K, Ternes T, Werner G, Wallner U, Löffler D, Ziebuhr W, Witte W, Hacker J. Institute for Molecular Biology of Infectious Diseases, The University of Würzburg, Röntgenring 11, D-97070 Würzburg, Germany. knut.ohlsen@mail.uni-wuerzburg.de The growing rate of microbial pathogens becoming resistant to standard antibiotics is an important threat to public health. In order to assess the role of antibiotics in the environment on the spread of resistance factors, the impact of subinhibitory concentrations of antibiotics in sewage on gene transfer was investigated using conjugative gentamicin resistance (aacA-aphD) plasmids of Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, the concentration of antibiotics in hospital sewage was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Several antibiotics were found to be present in sewage, e.g. ciprofloxacin up to 0.051 mgl(-1) and erythromycin up to 0.027 mgl(-1). Resistance plasmid transfer occurred both on solidified (dewatered) sewage and in liquid sewage in a bioreactor with a frequency of 1.1x10(-5)-5.0x10(-8). However, low-level concentrations of antibiotics measured in sewage are below concentrations that can increase plasmid transfer frequencies of gentamicin resistance plasmids of staphylococci.

Rhizobium gone native: Unexpected plasmid stability of indigenous Rhizobium leguminosarum

Lateral transfer of bacterial plasmids is thought to play an important role in microbial evolution and population dynamics. However, this assumption is based primarily on investigations of medically or agriculturally important bacterial species. To explore the role of lateral transfer in the evolution of bacterial systems not under intensive, human-mediated selection, we examined the association of genotypes at plasmid-encoded and chromosomal loci of native Rhizobium, the nitrogen-fixing symbiont of legumes. To this end, Rhizobium leguminosarum strains nodulating sympatric species of native Trifolium were characterized genetically at plasmid-encoded symbiotic (sym) regions (nodulation AB and nodulation CIJT loci) and a repeated chromosomal locus not involved in the symbiosis with legumes. Restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis was used to distinguish genetic groups at plasmid and chromosomal loci. The correlation between major sym and chromosomal genotypes and the distribution of genotypes across host plant species and sampling location were determined using χ2 analysis. In contrast to findings of previous studies, a strict association existed between major sym plasmid and chromosomal genetic groups, suggesting a lack of successful sym plasmid transfer between major Rhizobium chromosomal types. These data indicate that previous observations of sym plasmid transfer in agricultural settings may seriously overestimate the rates of successful conjugation in systems not impacted by human activities. In addition, a nonrandom distribution of Rhizobium genotypes across host plant species and sampling site demonstrates the importance of both factors in shaping Rhizobium population dynamics.

Postsymbiotic plasmid acquisition and evolution of the repA1-replicon in Buchnera aphidicola

Buchnera aphidicola is an obligate, strictly vertically transmitted, bacterial symbiont of aphids. It supplies its host with essential amino acids, nutrients required by aphids but deficient in their diet of plant phloem sap. Several lineages of Buchnera show adaptation to their nutritional role in the form of plasmid-mediated amplification of key-genes involved in the biosynthesis of tryptophan (trpEG) and leucine (leuABCD). Phylogenetic analyses of these plasmid-encoded functions have thus far suggested the absence of horizontal plasmid exchange among lineages of Buchnera. Here, we describe three new Buchnera plasmids, obtained from species of the aphid host families Lachnidae and Pemphigidae. All three plasmids belong to the repA1 family of Buchnera plasmids, which is characterized by the presence of a repA1-replicon responsible for replication initiation. A comprehensive analysis of this family of plasmids unexpectedly revealed significantly incongruent phylogenies for different plasmid and chromosomally encoded loci. We infer from these incongruencies a case of horizontal plasmid transfer in Buchnera. This process may have been mediated by secondary endosymbionts, which occasionally undergo horizontal transmission in aphids.

A soil-based microbial biofilm exposed to 2,4-D: bacterial community development and establishment of conjugative plasmid pJP4

A soil suspension was used as a source to initiate the development of microbial communities in flow cells irrigated with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) (25 mu g ml(-1)). Culturable bacterial members of the community were identified by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and found to be members of the genera Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Collimonas and Rhodococcus. A 2,4-D degrading donor strain, Pseudomonas putida SM 1443 (pJP4::gfp), was inoculated into flow cell chambers containing 2-day old biofilm communities. Transfer of pJP4::gfp from the donor to the bacterial community was detectable as GFP fluorescing cells and images were captured using confocal scanning laser microscopy (GFP fluorescence was repressed in the donor due to the presence of a chromosomally located lacl(q) repressor gene). Approximately 5-10 transconjugant microcolonies, 20-40 mu m in diameter, could be seen to develop in each chamber. A 2,4-D degrading transconjugant strain was isolated from the flow cell system belonging to the genus Burkholderia.

Molecular Biomonitoring during Rhizoremediation of Oil-Contaminated Soil

Rhizoremediation is the use of microbial populations present in the rhizosphere of plants for environmental cleanup. The idea of this work was that bacteria living in the rhizosphere of a nitrogen-fixing leguminous plant, goat's rue (Galega orientalis), could take part in the degradation of harmful monoaromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, toluene and xylene (BTEX), from oil-contaminated soils. In addition to chemical (e.g. pollutant concentration) and physical (e.g. soil structure) information, the knowledge of biological aspects (e.g. bacteria and their catabolic genes) is essential when developing the rhizoremediation into controlled and effective bioremediation practice. Therefore, the need for reliable biomonitoring methods is obvious. The main aims of this thesis were to evaluate the symbiotic G. orientalis - Rhizobium galegae system for rhizoremediation of oil-contaminated soils, to develop molecular methods for biomonitoring, and to apply these methods for studying the microbiology of rhizoremediation. In vitro, Galega plants and rhizobia remained viable in m-toluate concentrations up to 3000 mg/l. Plant growth and nodulation were inhibited in 500 mg/l m-toluate, but were restored when plants were transferred to clean medium. In the greenhouse, Galega showed good growth, nodulation and nitrogen fixation, and developed a strong rhizosphere in soils contaminated with oil or spiked with 2000 mg/l m-toluate. The high aromatic tolerance of R. galegae and the viability of Galega plants in oil-polluted soils proved this legume system to be a promising method for the rhizoremediation of oil-contaminated soils. Molecular biomonitoring methods were designed and/or developed further for bacteria and their degradation genes. A combination of genomic fingerprinting ((GTG)5-PCR), taxonomic ribotyping of 16S rRNA genes and partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing were chosen for molecular grouping of culturable, heterogeneous rhizosphere bacteria. PCR primers specific for the xylE gene were designed for TOL plasmid detection. Amplified enzyme-coding DNA restriction analysis (AEDRA) with AluI was used to profile both TOL plasmids (xylE primers) and, in general, aromatics-degrading plasmids (C230 primers). The sensitivity of the direct monitoring of TOL plasmids in soil was enhanced by nested C23O-xylE-PCR. Rhizosphere bacteria were isolated from the greenhouse and field lysimeter experiments. High genetic diversity was observed among the 50 isolated, m-toluate tolerating rhizosphere bacteria in the form of five major lineages of the Bacteria domain. Gram-positive Rhodococcus, Bacillus and Arthrobacter and gram-negative Pseudomonas were the most abundant genera. The inoculum Pseudomonas putida PaW85/pWW0 was not found in the rhizosphere samples. Even if there were no ecological niches available for the bioaugmentation bacterium itself, its conjugative catabolic plasmid might have had some additional value for other bacterial species and thus, for rhizoremediation. Only 10 to 20% of the isolated, m-toluate tolerating bacterial strains were also able to degrade m-toluate. TOL plasmids were a major group of catabolic plasmids among these bacteria. The ability to degrade m-toluate by using enzymes encoded by a TOL plasmid was detected only in species of the genus Pseudomonas, and the best m-toluate degraders were these Pseudomonas species. Strain-specific differences in degradation abilities were found for P.oryzihabitans and P. migulae: some of these strains harbored a TOL plasmid - a new finding observed in this work, indicating putative horizontal plasmid transfer in the rhizosphere. One P. oryzihabitans strain harbored the pWW0 plasmid that had probably conjugated from the bioaugmentation Pseudomonas. Some P. migulae and P. oryzihabitans strains seemed to harbor both the pWW0- and the pDK1-type TOL plasmid. Alternatively, they might have harbored a TOL plasmid with both the pWW0- and the pDK1-type xylE gene. The breakdown of m-toluate by gram-negative bacteria was not restricted to the TOL pathway. Also some gram-positive Rhodococcus erythropolis and Arthrobacter aurescens strains were able to degrade m-toluate in the absence of a TOL plasmid. Three aspects of the rhizosphere effect of G. orientalis were manifested in oil-contaminated soil in the field: 1) G. orientalis and Pseudomonas bioaugmentation increased the amount of rhizosphere bacteria. G. orientalis especially together with Pseudomonas bioaugmentation increased the numbers of m-toluate utilizing and catechol positive bacteria indicating an increase in degradation potential. 2) Also the bacterial diversity, when measured as the amount of ribotypes, was increased in the Galega rhizosphere with or without Pseudomonas bioaugmentation. However, the diversity of m-toluate utilizing bacteria did not significantly increase. At the community level, by using the 16S rRNA gene PCR-DGGE method, the highest diversity of species was also observed in vegetated soils compared with non-vegetated soils. Diversified communities may best guarantee the overall success in rhizoremediation by offering various genetic machineries for catabolic processes. 3) At the end of the experiment, no TOL plasmid could be detected by direct DNA analysis in soil treated with both G. orientalis and Pseudomonas. The detection limit for TOL plasmids was encountered indicating decreased amount of degradation plasmids and thus, the success of rhizoremediation. The use of G. orientalis for rhizoremediation is unique. In this thesis new information was obtained about the rhizosphere effect of Galega orientalis in BTEX contaminated soils. The molecular biomonitoring methods can be applied for several purposes within environmental biotechnology, such as for evaluating the intrinsic biodegradation potential, monitoring the enhanced bioremediation, and estimating the success of bioremediation. Environmental protection by using nature's own resources and thus, acting according to the principle of sustainable development, would be both economically and environmentally beneficial for society. Keywords: molecular biomonitoring, genetic fingerprinting, soil bacteria, bacterial diversity, TOL plasmid, catabolic genes, horizontal gene transfer, rhizoremediation, rhizosphere effect, Galega orientalis, aerobic biodegradation, petroleum hydrocarbons, BTEX

Estudo sobre as mudanças fenotípicas conferidas por plasmídios R provenientes de Klebsiella pneumoniae e Escherichia coli em transconjugantes de E. coli K12-R23

Plasmídios são DNA extracromossômicos, com capacidade de se duplicarem de forma independente das células que os albergam, e são responsáveis pela expressão de uma variedade de características, como fatores de virulência. O material do presente estudo se constituiu da cepa receptora E. coli K12-R23, e de cepas de Klebsiella pneumoniae e de Escherichia coli, doadoras de plasmídios R e transconjugantes. O objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar os fenótipos conferidos em cepas transconjugantes de ambas bactérias pela transferência de plasmídios R de cepas doadoras para a receptora. Para a análise dos fenótipos, utilizaram-se, nas cepas do estudo, algumas variáveis: sensibilidade a antimicrobianos e a ERO, aderência a células HEp-2, e formação de slime e de biofilme. O marcador da presença de plasmídio, neste trabalho, foi a presença de resistênca à gentamicina nas cepas doadoras. Os resultados indicaram que houve transferência de plasmídio, pois as cepas transconjugantes de K. pneumoniae e de E. coli apesentaram este marcador (foram resistentes à gentamicina); além disso, as cepas transconjugantes mostraram perfis distintos da receptora em relação à sensibilidade aos antimicrobianos, às ERO, aos padrões de aderência às células HEp-2 e à formação de slime, apesar de a formação de biofilme nestas cepas não ter sofrido modificações. Observou-se, contudo, que várias características das cepas doadoras não foram encontradas nas cepas transconjugantes de E. coli e de K. pneumoniae.

Biological safety concepts of genetically modified live bacterial vaccines

Live vaccines possess the advantage of having access to induce cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immunity; thus in certain cases they are able to prevent infection, and not only disease. Furthermore, live vaccines, particularly bacterial live vaccines, are relatively cheap to produce and easy to apply. Hence they are suitable to immunize large communities or herds. The induction of both cell-mediated immunity as well as antibody-mediated immunity, which is particularly beneficial in inducing mucosal immune responses, is obtained by the vaccine-strain's ability to colonize and multiply in the host without causing disease. For this reason, live vaccines require attenuation of virulence of the bacterium to which immunity must be induced. Traditionally attenuation was achieved simply by multiple passages of the microorganism on growth medium, in animals, eggs or cell cultures or by chemical or physical mutagenesis, which resulted in random mutations that lead to attenuation. In contrast, novel molecular methods enable the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) targeted to specific genes that are particularly suited to induce attenuation or to reduce undesirable effects in the tissue in which the vaccine strains can multiply and survive. Since live vaccine strains (attenuated by natural selection or genetic engineering) are potentially released into the environment by the vaccinees, safety issues concerning the medical as well as environmental aspects must be considered. These involve (i) changes in cell, tissue and host tropism, (ii) virulence of the carrier through the incorporation of foreign genes, (iii) reversion to virulence by acquisition of complementation genes, (iv) exchange of genetic information with other vaccine or wild-type strains of the carrier organism and (v) spread of undesired genes such as antibiotic resistance genes. Before live vaccines are applied, the safety issues must be thoroughly evaluated case-by-case. Safety assessment includes knowledge of the precise function and genetic location of the genes to be mutated, their genetic stability, potential reversion mechanisms, possible recombination events with dormant genes, gene transfer to other organisms as well as gene acquisition from other organisms by phage transduction, transposition or plasmid transfer and cis- or trans-complementation. For this, GMOs that are constructed with modern techniques of genetic engineering display a significant advantage over random mutagenesis derived live organisms. The selection of suitable GMO candidate strains can be made under in vitro conditions using basic knowledge on molecular mechanisms of pathogenicity of the corresponding bacterial species rather than by in vivo testing of large numbers of random mutants. This leads to a more targeted safety testing on volunteers and to a reduction in the use of animal experimentation.

Análisis genómico y funcional de los sistemas de Quorum Sensing en Rhizobium leguminosarum

Rhizobium leguminosarum (Rl) es una alfa-proteobacteria capaz de establecer una simbiosis diazotrófica con distintas leguminosas. A pesar de la importancia de esta simbiosis en el balance global del ciclo del nitrógeno, muy pocos genomas de rhizobios han sido secuenciados, que aporten nuevos conocimientos relacionados con las características genéticas que contribuyen a importantes procesos simbióticos. Únicamente tres secuencias completas de Rl han sido publicadas: Rl bv. viciae 3841 y dos genomas de Rl bv. trifolii (WSM1325 y WSM2304), ambos simbiontes de trébol. La secuencia genómica de Rlv UPM791 se ha determinado por medio de secuenciación 454. Este genoma tiene un tamaño aproximado de 7.8 Mb, organizado en un cromosoma y 5 replicones extracromosómicos, que incluyen un plásmido simbiótico de 405 kb. Este nuevo genoma se ha analizado en relación a las funciones simbióticas y adaptativas en comparación con los genomas completos de Rlv 3841 y Rl bv. trifolii WSM1325 y WSM2304. Mientras que los plásmidos pUPM791a y b se encuentran conservados, el plásmido simbiótico pUPM791c exhibe un grado de conservación muy bajo comparado con aquellos descritos en las otras cepas de Rl. Uno de los factores implicados en el establecimiento de la simbiosis es el sistema de comunicación intercelular conocido como Quorum Sensing (QS). El análisis del genoma de Rlv UPM791 ha permitido la identificación de dos sistemas tipo LuxRI mediados por señales de tipo N-acyl-homoserina lactonas (AHLs). El análisis mediante HPLC-MS ha permitido asociar las señales C6-HSL, C7-HSL y C8-HSL al sistema rhiRI, codificado en el plásmido simbiótico; mientras que el sistema cinRI, localizado en el cromosoma, produce 3OH-C14:1-HSL. Se ha identificado una tercera sintasa (TraI) codificada en el plásmido simbiótico, pero su regulador correspondiente se encuentra truncado debido a un salto de fase. Adicionalmente, se han encontrado tres reguladores de tipo LuxR-orphan que no presentan una sintasa LuxI asociada. El efecto potencial de las señales tipo AHL se ha estudiado mediante una estrategia de quorum quenching, la cual interfiere con los sistemas de QS de la bacteria. Esta estrategia está basada en la introducción del gen aiiA de Bacillus subtilis, que expresa constitutivamente una enzima lactonasa degradadora de AHLs. Para llevar a cabo el análisis en condiciones simbióticas, se ha desarrollado un sistema de doble marcaje que permite la identificación basado en los marcadores gusA y celB, que codifican para una enzima β–glucuronidasa y una β–galactosidasa termoestable, respectivamente. Los resultados obtenidos indican que Rlv UPM791 predomina sobre la cepa Rlv 3841 para la formación de nódulos en plantas de guisante. La baja estabilidad del plásmido que codifica para aiiA, no ha permitido obtener una conclusión definitiva sobre el efecto de la lactonasa AiiA en competitividad. Con el fin de analizar el significado y la regulación de la producción de moléculas señal tipo AHL, se han generado mutantes defectivos en cada uno de los dos sistemas de QS. Se ha llevado a cabo un análisis detallado sobre la producción de AHLs, formación de biofilm y simbiosis con plantas de guisante, veza y lenteja. El efecto de las deleciones de los genes rhiI y rhiR en Rlv UPM791 es más drástico en ausencia del plásmido pUPM791d. Mutaciones en cinI o cinRIS muestran tanto ausencia de señales, como producción exclusivamente de las de bajo peso molecular, respectivamente, producidas por el sistema rhiRI. Estas mutaciones mostraron un efecto importante en simbiosis. El sistema rhiRI se necesita para un comportamiento simbiótico normal. Además, mutantes cinRIS generaron nódulos blancos e ineficientes, mientras que el mutante cinI fue incapaz de producir nódulos en ninguna de las leguminosas utilizadas. Dicha mutación resultó en la inestabilización del plasmido simbiótico por un mecanismo dependiente de cinI que no ha sido aclarado. En general, los resultados obtenidos indican la existencia de un modelo de regulación dependiente de QS significativamente distinto a los que se han descrito previamente en otras cepas de R. leguminosarum, en las cuales no se había observado ningún fenotipo relevante en simbiosis. La regulación de la producción de AHLs Rlv UPM791 es un proceso complejo que implica genes situados en los plásmidos UPM791c y UPM791d, además de la señal 3-OH-C14:1-HSL. Finalmente, se ha identificado un transportador de tipo RND, homologo a mexAB-oprM de P. aeruginosa e implicado en la extrusión de AHLs de cadena larga. La mutación he dicho transportador no tuvo efectos apreciables sobre la simbiosis. ABSTRACT Rhizobium leguminosarum (Rl) is a soil alpha-proteobacterium that establishes a diazotrophic symbiosis with different legumes. Despite the importance of this symbiosis to the global nitrogen cycling balance, very few rhizobial genomes have been sequenced so far which provide new insights into the genetic features contributing to symbiotically relevant processes. Only three complete sequences of Rl strains have been published: Rl bv. viciae 3841, harboring six plasmids (7.75 Mb) and two Rl bv. trifolii (WSM1325 and WSM2304), both clover symbionts, harboring 5 and 4 plasmids, respectively (7.41 and 6.87 Mb). The genomic sequence of Rlv UPM791 was undertaken by means of 454 sequencing. Illumina and Sanger reads were used to improve the assembly, leading to 17 final contigs. This genome has an estimated size of 7.8 Mb organized in one chromosome and five extrachromosomal replicons, including a 405 kb symbiotic plasmid. Four of these plasmids are already closed, whereas there are still gaps in the smallest one (pUPM791d) due to the presence of insertion elements and repeated sequences, which difficult the assembly. The annotation has been carried out thanks to the Manatee pipeline. This new genome has been analyzed as regarding symbiotic and adaptive functions in comparison to the Rlv 3841 complete genome, and to those from Rl bv. trifolii strains WSM1325 and WSM2304. While plasmids pUPM791a and b are conserved, the symbiotic plasmid pUPM791c exhibited the lowest degree of conservation as compared to those from the other Rl strains. One of the factors involved in the symbiotic process is the intercellular communication system known as Quorum Sensing (QS). This mechanism allows bacteria to carry out diverse biological processes in a coordinate way through the production and detection of extracellular signals that regulate the transcription of different target genes. Analysis of the Rlv UPM791 genome allowed the identification of two LuxRI-like systems mediated by N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs). HPLC-MS analysis allowed the adscription of C6-HSL, C7-HSL and C8-HSL signals to the rhiRI system, encoded in the symbiotic plasmid, whereas the cinRI system, located in the chromosome, produces 3OH-C14:1-HSL, previously described as “bacteriocin small”. A third synthase (TraI) is encoded also in the symbiotic plasmid, but its cognate regulator TraR is not functional due to a fameshift mutation. Three additional LuxR orphans were also found which no associated LuxI-type synthase. The potential effect of AHLs has been studied by means of a quorum quenching approach to interfere with the QS systems of the bacteria. This approach is based upon the introduction into the strains Rl UPM791 and Rl 3841 of the Bacillus subtilis gene aiiA expressing constitutively an AHL-degrading lactonase enzyme which led to virtual absence of AHL even when AiiA-expressing cells were a fraction of the total population. No significant effect of AiiA-mediated AHL removal on competitiveness for growth in solid surface was observed. For analysis under symbiotic conditions we have set up a two-label system to identify nodules produced by two different strains in pea roots, based on the markers gusA and celB, encoding a β–glucuronidase and a thermostable β–galactosidase enzymes, respectively. The results obtained show that Rlv UPM791 outcompetes Rlv 3841 for nodule formation in pea plants, and that the presence of the AiiA plasmid does not significantly affect the relative competitiveness of the two Rlv strains. However, the low stability of the pME6863 plasmid, encoding aiiA, did not lead to a clear conclusion about the AiiA lactonase effect on competitiveness. In order to further analyze the significance and regulation of the production of AHL signal molecules, mutants deficient in each of the two QS systems were constructed. A detailed analysis of the effect of these mutations on AHL production, biofilm formation and symbiosis with pea, vetch and lentil plants has been carried out. The effect of deletions on Rlv UPM791 rhiI and rhiR genes is more pronounced in the absence of plasmid pUPM791d, as no signal is detected in UPM791.1, lacking this plasmid. Mutations in cinI or cinRIS show either no signals, or only the small ones produced by the rhiRI system, suggesting that cinR might be regulating the rhiRI system. These mutations had a strong effect on symbiosis. Analysis of rhi mutants revealed that rhiRI system is required for normal symbiotic performance, as a drastic reduction of symbiotic fitness is observed when rhiI is deleted, and rhiR is essential for nitrogen fixation in the absence of plasmid pUPM791d. Furthermore, cinRIS mutants resulted in white and inefficient nodules, whereas cinI mutant was unable to form nodules on any legume tested. The latter mutation is associated to the instabilization of the symbiotic plasmid through a mechanism still uncovered. Overall, the results obtained indicate the existence of a model of QS-dependent regulation significantly different to that previously described in other R. leguminosarum strains, where no relevant symbiotic phenotype had been observed. The regulation of AHL production in Rlv UPM791 is a complex process involving the symbiotic plasmid (pUPM791c) and the smallest plasmid (pUPM791d), with a key role for the 3-OH-C14:1-HSL signal. Finally, we made a search for potential AHL transporters in Rlv UPM791 genome. These signals diffuse freely across membranes, but in the case of the long-chain AHLs an active efflux system might be required, as it has been described for C12-HSL in the case of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We have identified a putative AHL transporter of the RND family homologous to P. aeruginosa mexAB-oprM. A mutant strain deficient in this transporter has been generated, and TLC analysis shows absence of 3OH-C14:1-HSL in its supernatant. This deficiency was complemented by the reintroduction of an intact copy of the genes via plasmid transfer. The mutation in mexAB genes had no significant effects on the symbiotic performance of R. leguminosarum bv. viciae.

cag, a pathogenicity island of Helicobacter pylori, encodes type I-specific and disease-associated virulence factors

cagA, a gene that codes for an immunodominant antigen, is present only in Helicobacter pylori strains that are associated with severe forms of gastroduodenal disease (type I strains). We found that the genetic locus that contains cagA (cag) is part of a 40-kb DNA insertion that likely was acquired horizontally and integrated into the chromosomal glutamate racemase gene. This pathogenicity island is flanked by direct repeats of 31 bp. In some strains, cag is split into a right segment (cagI) and a left segment (cagII) by a novel insertion sequence (IS605). In a minority of H. pylori strains, cagI and cagII are separated by an intervening chromosomal sequence. Nucleotide sequencing of the 23,508 base pairs that form the cagI region and the extreme 3′ end of the cagII region reveals the presence of 19 ORFs that code for proteins predicted to be mostly membrane associated with one gene (cagE), which is similar to the toxin-secretion gene of Bordetella pertussis, ptlC, and the transport systems required for plasmid transfer, including the virB4 gene of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Transposon inactivation of several of the cagI genes abolishes induction of IL-8 expression in gastric epithelial cell lines. Thus, we believe the cag region may encode a novel H. pylori secretion system for the export of virulence determinants.

Stringent chemical and thermal regulation of recombinant gene expression by vaccinia virus vectors in mammalian cells.

We developed a stringently regulated expression system for mammalian cells that uses (i) the RNA polymerase, phi 10 promoter, and T phi transcriptional terminator of bacteriophage T7; (ii) the lac repressor, lac operator, rho-independent transcriptional terminators and the gpt gene of Escherichia coli; (iii) the RNA translational enhancer of encephalomyocarditis virus; and (iv) the genetic background of vaccinia virus. In cells infected with the recombinant vaccinia virus, reporter beta-galactosidase synthesis was not detected in the absence of inducer. An induction of at least 10,000- to 20,000-fold occurred upon addition of isopropyl beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside or by temperature elevation from 30 to 37 degrees C using a temperature-sensitive lac repressor. Regulated synthesis of the secreted and highly glycosylated human immunodeficiency virus 1 envelope protein gp120 was also demonstrated. Yields of both proteins were approximately 2 mg per 10(8) cells in 24 hr. Plasmid transfer vectors for cloning and expression of complete or incomplete open reading frames in recombinant vaccinia viruses are described.

Plasmid DNA mediated transfer of the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene to a new bromodeoxyuridine resistant variant of human primary lung carcinoma cells

A human primary lung carcinoma cell line (HPL-R1) established from the tumor biopsy of a lung cancer patient, lacking in cytochrome P1-450 [aryl hydrocarbon (benzo[a]pyrene) hydroxylase (AHH)], was cloned and used to obtain variants deficient in the expression of thymidine-kinase via treatment with 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine, and selection for drug resistance phenotype. The variant cell line, precharacterized for thymidine kinase negative phenotype, was transfected with the thymidine kinase gene bearing p R-tk and px1-tk plasmids. Transfections from both the plasmids, demonstrated a frequency of 5.5 X 10(-5). The transfectants showed a 76-100% retention of the transferred phenotype. These data suggest that transfection in variant human cells can approach significant levels of stability observed with rodent cell recipients.

Broad host range plasmid-based gene transfer system in the cyanobacterium Gloeobacter violaceus which lacks thylakoids

Gloeobacter violaceus, a cyanobacterium lack of thylakoids, is refractory to genetic manipulations because its cells are enveloped by a thick gelatinous sheath and in colonial form. In this study, a large number of single cells were obtained by repeated pumping with a syringe with the gelatinous sheath removed. And an exogenous broad host range plasmid pKT210 was conjugatively transferred into G. violaceus. Analyses with dot-blot hybridization and restriction mapping showed that the exogenous plasmid pKT210 had been introduced into G. violaceus and stably maintained with no alteration in its structure. pKT210 extracted from G. violaceus exconjugants could be transformed into the mcr - mrr - E. coli strain DH10B but not the mcr(+) mrr(+) strain DH5alpha, which suggests that a methylase system may be present in G. violaceus.