Pulsed electric field mediated in vitro cellular response of fibroblast and osteoblast-like cells on conducting austenitic stainless steel substrate

This article reports the intermittent pulse electric field stimulus mediated in vitro cellular response of L929 mouse fibroblast/SaOS2 osteoblast-like cells on austenitic steel substrates in reference to the field strength dependent behavior. The cellular density and morphometric analyses revealed that the optimal electric (E) fields for the maximum cell density of adhered L929 (similar to 270 % to that of untreated sample) and SaOS2 (similar to 280 % to that of untreated sample) cells are 1 V (0.33 V/cm) and 2 V (0.67 V/cm), respectively. The trend in aspect ratio of elongated SaOS2 cells did not indicate any significant difference among the untreated and treated (up to 3.33 V/cm) cells. The average cell and nucleus areas (for SaOS2 cells) were increased with an increase in the applied voltage up to 8 V (2.67 V/cm) and reduced thereafter. However, the ratio of nucleus to total cell area was increased significantly on the application of higher voltages (2-10 V), indicating the possible influence of E-field on cell growth. Further, the cell density results were compared with earlier results obtained with sintered Hydroxyapatite (HA) and HA-BaTiO3 composites and such comparison revealed that the enhanced cell density on steel sample occurs upon application of much lower field strength and stimulation time. This indicates the possible role of substrate conductivity towards cell growth in pulsed E-field mediated culture conditions.

Characterization of the toxic potential of nanomaterials using in vitro cell models

Os nanomateriais são estruturas com uma ou mais dimensões inferiores a 100 nanómetros. Devido à sua pequena dimensão, as nanopartículas apresentam atributos únicos, tais como a sua elevada área superficial relativamente à sua massa, reactividade ou força tênsil. Estas características influenciam grandemente algumas das propriedades dos nanomateriais, como a sua hidrofobicidade, carga ou toxicidade. As propriedades das nanopartículas tornam-nas também muito úteis para o Homem, sendo aplicadas em medicina, farmácia, electrónica, cosmética, vestuário e biotecnologia, entre outras. O aumento de produção e utilização de nanomateriais tem vindo a aumentar também a possibilidade de exposição humana a este tipo de partículas, levando a preocupações relativas ao risco de toxicidade aguda ou crónica. A exposição humana pode ocorrer por diversas vias, sendo as mais relevantes a via inalatória, ingestão ou contacto com a pele. Dependendo do material e do órgão-alvo, a exposição a nanomateriais pode conduzir a diferentes consequências biológicas: a nível dos órgãos, os nanomateriais podem levar a inflamação ou a supressão do sistema imunitário e, a nível celular e molecular, a perturbações na estrutura e integridade do genoma, assim como a interacções com moléculas biológicas e inibição da actividade proteica, entre outras consequências. Um dos nanomateriais mais utilizados são os nanotubos de carbono. Estes são constituídos por grafite cilíndrica disposta numa única camada (designados nanotubos de carbono de parede simples) ou em várias (nanotubos de carbono de parede múltipla). Os nanotubos de carbono apresentam propriedades como resistência e condutividade que os tornam muito úteis em aplicações como aparelhos electrónicos, vestuário ou biomedicina; cada vez mais, portanto, se torna provável a exposição ocupacional ou ambiental a este material. A semelhança estrutural destas partículas com fibras de amianto conduziu a questões relativas à sua segurança, pelo que já foram elaborados diversos estudos relativos aos seus efeitos biológicos. Alguns trabalhos sugerem que os nanotubos de carbono têm a capacidade de produzir toxicidade associada a lesões físicas, à produção de danos oxidativos por interacção com mecanismos celulares, ou a morte celular. Outros trabalhos defendem que estas partículas não causam toxicidade relevante. O projecto de dimensão europeia “NANoREG” surgiu da necessidade de ser desenvolvida legislação e regulamentação apoiadas em conhecimento científico e adequadas à produção e ao uso actual de nanomateriais. Este trabalho teve como objectivos principais a determinação do potencial cito- e genotóxico de um conjunto de nanotubos de carbono de parede múltipla (designados NM-400 a NM-403), e a consequente tentativa de associar este potencial às características físico-químicas dos nanomateriais. Com este objectivo, a exposição por via inalatória foi analisada, pelo uso de duas linhas celulares in vitro provenientes de tecidos do tracto respiratório: epitélio pulmonar (células A549) e epitélio brônquico (células BEAS-2B). A citotoxicidade dos nanotubos de carbono foi analisada com base em três parâmetros. Em primeiro lugar, as células foram contadas após a exposição aos nanomateriais utilizando o corante azul de tripanao para excluir as células inviáveis; a contagem foi realizada 3 e 24 horas após a exposição das células aos nanotubos. Os resultados deste ensaio apontam para a ausência de citotoxicidade após a exposição mais curta, e dados inconsistentes após a mais longa. Em segundo lugar, foi realizado o ensaio clonogénico, que se baseia na capacidade das células de se dividirem após a exposição ao agente em estudo. Este ensaio só foi realizado nas células A549 pois as BEAS-2B não permitem a formação de colónias. Os resultados apontam para uma citotoxicidade após a exposição a todos os nanomateriais, cuja intensidade se relaciona directamente com o tamanho das partículas, assim como ao seu diâmetro e área de superfície. Em terceiro lugar, foram calculados dois índices de viabilidade no ensaio dos Micronúcleos, cujo objectivo é avaliar se as células se dividiram durante a exposição aos nanomateriais em comparação com o controlo, e cujos resultados apresentam incoerências em relação aos outros já referidos. Estes dados podem ser justificados pelas diferenças existentes entre os ensaios, como o tempo de exposição ou a densidade celular. Os efeitos genotóxicos dos nanomateriais foram avaliados com recurso aos ensaios do cometa e dos micronúcleos. O primeiro detecta lesões pequenas e reversíveis nas cadeias de DNA, ao passo que o segundo detecta efeitos irreversíveis ao nível cromossómico, tais como quebras ou perdas de cromossomas. Os resultados do ensaio do cometa sugerem que nenhum dos nanomateriais testados é genotóxico, uma vez que em ambas as linhas celulares e em ambos os tempos de exposição, os resultados são negativos. O ensaio dos micronúcleos, por outro lado, aponta para existência de genotoxicidade de dois dos nanomateriais (NM-401 e NM-402) nas células A549, mas não em células BEAS-2B. Uma possível explicação para estes dados aparentemente contraditórios pode residir na hipótese de estes nanotubos de carbono serem compostos com efeitos aneugénicos, mas não clastogénicos: o ensaio dos micronúcleos permite a detecção de ambos os mecanismos de acção, ao passo que o ensaio do cometa só revela a quebra de cadeias de DNA. Outra justificação para os resultados é a possível influência da perda de viabilidade das células analisadas. Com base nos dados do ensaio clonogénico, estas partículas apresentam elevada citotoxicidade, pelo que os resultados dos ensaios de genotoxicidade, em particular do Ensaio do Cometa, poderão ser afectados por estes efeitos. O meio de cultura usado para expor as células aos nanomateriais também é um parâmetro muito relevante na sua toxicidade. Neste trabalho, foram usados meios de cultura com proteínas, que podem ser adsorvidas pelas partículas e formar uma “corona” em seu redor; este processo pode alterar propriedades importantes dos nanomateriais, entre os quais o seu potencial efeito biológico. Também o método usado para conseguir uma dispersão homogénea de nanomateriais pode conduzir a diferenças nos resultados dos ensaios de toxicidade. Neste estudo, foram observados alguns problemas relativos à perda de homogeneidade das dispersões de nanotubos de carbono, o que pode ter conduzido a que as células fossem expostas a massas de partículas de grandes dimensões conjuntamente com partículas individualizadas. O período durante o qual as células são expostas ao nanomaterial é também um aspecto essencial na produção de efeitos tóxicos. Resumindo, este projecto forneceu informações relativas à toxicidade dos nanotubos de carbono que, complementadas pelas conclusões dos restantes parceiros do projecto europeu, poderão contribuir significativamente para a avaliação de risco e criação de legislação relativamente à utilização de nanomateriais. Na linha celular BEAS-2B, nenhum destes nanomateriais parece produzir efeitos tóxicos, quer a nível de célula, quer a nível de genoma, nas condições experimentais utilizadas. Nas células A549, por outro lado, os três nanomateriais testados parecem ser acentuadamente citotóxicos, e dois deles (NM-401 e NM-402) são também genotóxicos. Em relação a perspectivas futuras, pode-se concluir que nem todos os ensaios de toxicidade existentes actualmente são adequados à análise de nanopartículas, pelo que novas metodologias devem ser desenvolvidas e complementadas por ensaios in vivo. Todos os estudos envolvendo nanomateriais deverão também descrever as características físico-químicas dos materiais usados, de forma a se poderem comparar os resultados com os de outros trabalhos.

Requirements for Staphylococcus aureus in vitro cellular internalization

Staphylcoccus aureus is a prokaryotic organism capable of causing numerous superficial and severe human infections. Adhesion of S. aureus to host tissues or cells is believed to be a crucial event in S. aureus infections. Subsequently, S. aureus can seed into the bloodstream resulting in metastasis of the infection. Several reports show that S. aureus can be internalized by non-professional phagocytes, a process which has been proposed to be important in S. aureus dissemination. An intracellular residence has also been proposed to provide safe harbor to reservoirs of dormant bacteria contributing to the persistence of infection. This dissertation describes an investigation into the molecular mechanisms of S. aureus internalization into both fibroblast and epithelial cells. Bacterial requirements for internalization were found to be limited to expression of proteins that bind the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin. A previously unknown fibronectin-binding region in the S. aureus fibronectin-binding protein A was discovered after showing competitive inhibition of S. aureus internalization. This novel fibronectin-binding activity is characterized. Internalization also required cell-based factors. The presence of fibronectin and cell surface receptors of the β1 integrin class, which are known to bind and internalize fibronectin, were found to be necessary for optimal internalization of S. aureus. These results led to the conclusion that fibronectin acts as a bridge between the bacterium and integrins on the host cells. The internalization process exhibits features characteristic of integrin-mediated cell migration on fibronectin-coated surfaces. Both processes involved an active form of the β1 integrin subunit and the protein tyrosine kinase Src. Finally, a Src inhibitor previously shown to be effective in reducing osteoporosis in an in vivo rat model is capable of greatly reducing S. aureus internalization. ^

Cancer therapy combining the modalities of hyperthermia and chemotherapy: In vitro cellular response after rapid heat accumulation in the cancer cell

Hyperthermia is usually used at a sub-lethal level in cancer treatment to potentiate the effects of chemotherapy. The purpose of this study is to investigate the role of heating rate in achieving synergistic cell killing by chemotherapy and hyperthermia. For this purpose, in vitro cell culture experiments with a uterine cancer cell line (MES-SA) and its multidrug resistant (MDR) variant MES-SA/Dx5 were conducted. The cytotoxicity, mode of cell death, induction of thermal tolerance and P-gp mediated MDR following the two different modes of heating were studied. Doxorubicin (DOX) was used as the chemotherapy drug. Indocyanine green (ICG), which absorbs near infrared light at 808nm (ideal for tissue penetration), was chosen for achieving rapid rate hyperthermia. A slow rate hyperthermia was provided by a cell culture incubator. The results show that the potentiating effect of hyperthermia to chemotherapy can be maximized by increasing the rate of heating as evident by the results from the cytotoxicity assay. When delivered at the same thermal dose, a rapid increase in temperature from 37°C to 43°C caused more cell membrane damage than gradually heating the cells from 37°C to 43°C and thus allowed for more intracellular accumulation of the chemotherapeutic agents. Different modes of cell death are observed by the two hyperthermia delivery methods. The rapid rate laser-ICG hyperthermia @ 43°C caused cell necrosis whereas the slow rate incubator hyperthermia @ 43°C induced very mild apoptosis. At 43°C a positive correlation between thermal tolerance and the length of hyperthermia exposure is identified. This study shows that by increasing the rate of heating, less thermal dose is needed in order to overcome P-gp mediated MDR.

Utilisation d’un modèle de co-culture cellulaire pour l’évaluation in vitro du transport inverse du cholestérol

De nouveaux modèles cellulaires in vitro par transfert de milieu et par coculture ont été mis au point afin d’évaluer la capacité des HDL à éliminer l’excès de cholestérol des tissus périphériques et de le transporter vers le foie afin d’être excrété par le foie, un processus nommé le transport inverse du cholestérol (TIC). Le système cellulaire par transfert in vitro où des macrophages J774 sont gorgés de LDL acétylées et marqués au 3H-cholestérol a été préalablement établi afin de mesurer par scintillation l’efflux de cholestérol marqué vers le milieu de culture contenant des accepteurs de cholestérol. Ce milieu conditionné est transféré sur des cellules HepG2 afin d’étudier l’influx du cholestérol marqué. Ce dernier nous permet d’observer un transport de cholestérol de 25 % hors des J774 et un transport de 39 000 cpm dans les HepG2 en utilisant un milieu contenant 2 % de sérums humains mis en commun. Une stimulation des cellules J774 par l’AMPc augmente l’efflux et l’influx d’environ 45 %. Des tests de preuve de concept ont été effectués sur le système cellulaire par co-culture qui utilise des chambres de Boyden où les J774 sont localisées au fond d’un puits et les HepG2 dans un insert, et où le milieu est partagé entre les deux types cellulaires. On a déterminé qu’une confluence densité de 60 000 cellules/cm2 sur un insert constitué d’une membrane de polyester avec des pores de 3,0 μm, sans autre revêtement, permet d’observer un influx spécifique au sérum d’environ 6 000 cpm associés aux cellules HepG2, où 50 % des comptes radioactifs sont dans les cellules et l’autre moitié présente à la surface cellulaire.

Utilisation d’un modèle de co-culture cellulaire pour l’évaluation in vitro du transport inverse du cholestérol

De nouveaux modèles cellulaires in vitro par transfert de milieu et par coculture ont été mis au point afin d’évaluer la capacité des HDL à éliminer l’excès de cholestérol des tissus périphériques et de le transporter vers le foie afin d’être excrété par le foie, un processus nommé le transport inverse du cholestérol (TIC). Le système cellulaire par transfert in vitro où des macrophages J774 sont gorgés de LDL acétylées et marqués au 3H-cholestérol a été préalablement établi afin de mesurer par scintillation l’efflux de cholestérol marqué vers le milieu de culture contenant des accepteurs de cholestérol. Ce milieu conditionné est transféré sur des cellules HepG2 afin d’étudier l’influx du cholestérol marqué. Ce dernier nous permet d’observer un transport de cholestérol de 25 % hors des J774 et un transport de 39 000 cpm dans les HepG2 en utilisant un milieu contenant 2 % de sérums humains mis en commun. Une stimulation des cellules J774 par l’AMPc augmente l’efflux et l’influx d’environ 45 %. Des tests de preuve de concept ont été effectués sur le système cellulaire par co-culture qui utilise des chambres de Boyden où les J774 sont localisées au fond d’un puits et les HepG2 dans un insert, et où le milieu est partagé entre les deux types cellulaires. On a déterminé qu’une confluence densité de 60 000 cellules/cm2 sur un insert constitué d’une membrane de polyester avec des pores de 3,0 μm, sans autre revêtement, permet d’observer un influx spécifique au sérum d’environ 6 000 cpm associés aux cellules HepG2, où 50 % des comptes radioactifs sont dans les cellules et l’autre moitié présente à la surface cellulaire.

Development of human central nervous system 3D in vitro models for preclinical research

Neurological disorders are a major concern in modern societies, with increasing prevalence mainly related with the higher life expectancy. Most of the current available therapeutic options can only control and ameliorate the patients’ symptoms, often be-coming refractory over time. Therapeutic breakthroughs and advances have been hampered by the lack of accurate central nervous system (CNS) models. The develop-ment of these models allows the study of the disease onset/progression mechanisms and the preclinical evaluation of novel therapeutics. This has traditionally relied on genetically engineered animal models that often diverge considerably from the human phenotype (developmentally, anatomically and physiologically) and 2D in vitro cell models, which fail to recapitulate the characteristics of the target tissue (cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, cell polarity). The in vitro recapitulation of CNS phenotypic and functional features requires the implementation of advanced culture strategies that enable to mimic the in vivo struc-tural and molecular complexity. Models based on differentiation of human neural stem cells (hNSC) in 3D cultures have great potential as complementary tools in preclinical research, bridging the gap between human clinical studies and animal models. This thesis aimed at the development of novel human 3D in vitro CNS models by integrat-ing agitation-based culture systems and a wide array of characterization tools. Neural differentiation of hNSC as 3D neurospheres was explored in Chapter 2. Here, it was demonstrated that human midbrain-derived neural progenitor cells from fetal origin (hmNPC) can generate complex tissue-like structures containing functional dopaminergic neurons, as well as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Chapter 3 focused on the development of cellular characterization assays for cell aggregates based on light-sheet fluorescence imaging systems, which resulted in increased spatial resolu-tion both for fixed samples or live imaging. The applicability of the developed human 3D cell model for preclinical research was explored in Chapter 4, evaluating the poten-tial of a viral vector candidate for gene therapy. The efficacy and safety of helper-dependent CAV-2 (hd-CAV-2) for gene delivery in human neurons was evaluated, demonstrating increased neuronal tropism, efficient transgene expression and minimal toxicity. The potential of human 3D in vitro CNS models to mimic brain functions was further addressed in Chapter 5. Exploring the use of 13C-labeled substrates and Nucle-ar Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy tools, neural metabolic signatures were evaluated showing lineage-specific metabolic specialization and establishment of neu-ron-astrocytic shuttles upon differentiation. Chapter 6 focused on transferring the knowledge and strategies described in the previous chapters for the implementation of a scalable and robust process for the 3D differentiation of hNSC derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC). Here, software-controlled perfusion stirred-tank bioreactors were used as technological system to sustain cell aggregation and dif-ferentiation. The work developed in this thesis provides practical and versatile new in vitro ap-proaches to model the human brain. Furthermore, the culture strategies described herein can be further extended to other sources of neural phenotypes, including pa-tient-derived hiPSC. The combination of this 3D culture strategy with the implemented characterization methods represents a powerful complementary tool applicable in the drug discovery, toxicology and disease modeling.

Comparison of immortalized bEnd5 and primary mouse brain microvascular endothelial cells as in vitro blood-brain barrier models for the study of T cell extravasation

Important insights into the molecular mechanism of T cell extravasation across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) have already been obtained using immortalized mouse brain endothelioma cell lines (bEnd). However, compared with bEnd, primary brain endothelial cells have been shown to establish better barrier characteristics, including complex tight junctions and low permeability. In this study, we asked whether bEnd5 and primary mouse brain microvascular endothelial cells (pMBMECs) were equally suited as in vitro models with which to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of T cell extravasation across the BBB. We found that both in vitro BBB models equally supported both T cell adhesion under static and physiologic flow conditions, and T cell crawling on the endothelial surface against the direction of flow. In contrast, distances of T cell crawling on pMBMECs were strikingly longer than on bEnd5, whereas diapedesis of T cells across pMBMECs was dramatically reduced compared with bEnd5. Thus, both in vitro BBB models are suited to study T cell adhesion. However, because pMBMECs better reflect endothelial BBB specialization in vivo, we propose that more reliable information about the cellular and molecular mechanisms of T cell diapedesis across the BBB can be attained using pMBMECs.

Pathogenicity of Plesiomonas shigelloides : interactions with eukaryotic host cells in vitro

Diarrhoea is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in populations in developing countries and is a significant health issue throughout the world. Despite the frequency and the severity of the diarrhoeal disease, mechanisms of pathogenesis for many of the causative agents have been poorly characterised. Although implicated in a number of intestinal and extra-intestinal infections in humans, Plesiomonas shigelloides generally has been dismissed as an enteropathogen due to the lack of clearly demonstrated virulence-associated properties such as production of cytotoxins and enterotoxins or invasive abilities. However, evidence from a number of sources has indicated that this species may be the cause of a number of clinical infections. The work described in this thesis seeks to resolve this discrepancy by investigating the pathogenic potential of P. shigelloides using in vitro cell models. The focus of this research centres on how this organism interacts with human host cells in an experimental model. Very little is known about the pathogenic potential of P. shigel/oides and its mechanisms in human infections and disease. However, disease manifestations mimic those of other related microorganisms. Chapter 2 reviews microbial pathogenesis in general, with an emphasis on understanding the mechanisms resulting from infection with bacterial pathogens and the alterations in host cell biology. In addition, this review analyses the pathogenic status of a poorly-defined enteropathogen, P. shigelloides. Key stages of pathogenicity must occur in order for a bacterial pathogen to cause disease. Such stages include bacterial adherence to host tissue, bacterial entry into host tissues (usually required), multiplication within host tissues, evasion of host defence mechanisms and the causation of damage. In this study, these key strategies in infection and disease were sought to help assess the pathogenic potential of P. shigelloides (Chapter 3). Twelve isolates of P. shigelloides, obtained from clinical cases of gastroenteritis, were used to infect monolayers of human intestinal epithelial cells in vitro. Ultrastructural analysis demonstrated that P. shigelloides was able to adhere to the microvilli at the apical surface of the epithelial cells and also to the plasma membranes of both apical and basal surfaces. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that these isolates were able to enter intestinal epithelial cells. Internalised bacteria often were confined within vacuoles surrounded by single or multiple membranes. Observation of bacteria within membranebound vacuoles suggests that uptake of P. shigelloides into intestinal epithelial cells occurs via a process morphologically comparable to phagocytosis. Bacterial cells also were observed free in the host cell cytoplasm, indicating that P. shige/loides is able to escape from the surrounding vacuolar membrane and exist within the cytosol of the host. Plesiomonas shigelloides has not only been implicated in gastrointestinal infections, but also in a range of non-intestinal infections such as cholecystitis, proctitis, septicaemia and meningitis. The mechanisms by which P. shigelloides causes these infections are not understood. Previous research was unable to ascertain the pathogenic potential of P. shigel/oides using cells of non-intestinal origin (HEp-2 cells derived from a human larynx carcinoma and Hela cells derived from a cervical carcinoma). However, with the recent findings (from this study) that P. shigelloides can adhere to and enter intestinal cells, it was hypothesised, that P. shigel/oides would be able to enter Hela and HEp-2 cells. Six clinical isolates of P. shigelloides, which previously have been shown to be invasive to intestinally derived Caco-2 cells (Chapter 3) were used to study interactions with Hela and HEp-2 cells (Chapter 4). These isolates were shown to adhere to and enter both nonintestinal host cell lines. Plesiomonas shigelloides were observed within vacuoles surrounded by single and multiple membranes, as well as free in the host cell cytosol, similar to infection by P. shigelloides of Caco-2 cells. Comparisons of the number of bacteria adhered to and present intracellularly within Hela, HEp-2 and Caco-2 cells revealed a preference of P. shigelloides for Caco-2 cells. This study conclusively showed for the first time that P. shigelloides is able to enter HEp-2 and Hela cells, demonstrating the potential ability to cause an infection and/or disease of extra-intestinal sites in humans. Further high resolution ultrastructural analysis of the mechanisms involved in P. shigelloides adherence to intestinal epithelial cells (Chapter 5) revealed numerous prominent surface features which appeared to be involved in the binding of P. shige/loides to host cells. These surface structures varied in morphology from small bumps across the bacterial cell surface to much longer filaments. Evidence that flagella might play a role in bacterial adherence also was found. The hypothesis that filamentous appendages are morphologically expressed when in contact with host cells also was tested. Observations of bacteria free in the host cell cytosol suggests that P. shigelloides is able to lyse free from the initial vacuolar compartment. The vacuoles containing P. shigel/oides within host cells have not been characterised and the point at which P. shigelloides escapes from the surrounding vacuolar compartment has not been determined. A cytochemical detection assay for acid phosphatase, an enzymatic marker for lysosomes, was used to analyse the co-localisation of bacteria-containing vacuoles and acid phosphatase activity (Chapter 6). Acid phosphatase activity was not detected in these bacteria-containing vacuoles. However, the surface of many intracellular and extracellular bacteria demonstrated high levels of acid phosphatase activity, leading to the proposal of a new virulence factor for P. shigelloides. For many pathogens, the efficiency with which they adhere to and enter host cells is dependant upon the bacterial phase of growth. Such dependency reflects the timing of expression of particular virulence factors important for bacterial pathogenesis. In previous studies (Chapter 3 to Chapter 6), an overnight culture of P. shigelloides was used to investigate a number of interactions, however, it was unknown whether this allowed expression of bacterial factors to permit efficient P. shigelloides attachment and entry into human cells. In this study (Chapter 7), a number of clinical and environmental P. shigelloides isolates were investigated to determine whether adherence and entry into host cells in vitro was more efficient during exponential-phase or stationary-phase bacterial growth. An increase in the number of adherent and intracellular bacteria was demonstrated when bacteria were inoculated into host cell cultures in exponential phase cultures. This was demonstrated clearly for 3 out of 4 isolates examined. In addition, an increase in the morphological expression of filamentous appendages, a suggested virulence factor for P. shigel/oides, was observed for bacteria in exponential growth phase. These observations suggest that virulence determinants for P. shigel/oides may be more efficiently expressed when bacteria are in exponential growth phase. This study demonstrated also, for the first time, that environmental water isolates of P. shigelloides were able to adhere to and enter human intestinal cells in vitro. These isolates were seen to enter Caco-2 host cells through a process comparable to the clinical isolates examined. These findings support the hypothesis of a water transmission route for P. shigelloides infections. The results presented in this thesis contribute significantly to our understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms involved in P. shigelloides infections and disease. Several of the factors involved in P. shigelloides pathogenesis have homologues in other pathogens of the human intestine, namely Vibrio, Aeromonas, Salmonella, Shigella species and diarrhoeaassociated strains of Escherichia coli. This study emphasises the relevance of research into Plesiomonas as a means of furthering our understanding of bacterial virulence in general. As well it provides tantalising clues on normal and pathogenic host cell mechanisms.

Complex Interactions between Dioxin-Like and Non-Dioxin-Like Compounds for in Vitro Cellular Responses: Implications for the Identification of Dioxin Exposure Biomarkers

Despite considerable advances in reducing the production of dioxin-like toxicants in recent years, contamination of the food chain still occasionally occurs resulting in huge losses to the agri-food sector and risk to human health through exposure. Dioxin-like toxicity is exhibited by a range of stable and bioaccumulative compounds including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and dibenzofurans (PCDFs), produced by certain types of combustion, and man-made coplanar polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), as found in electrical transformer oils. While dioxinergic compounds act by a common mode of action making exposure detection biomarker based techniques a potentially useful tool, the influence of co-contaminating toxicants on such approaches needs to be considered. To assess the impact of possible interactions, the biological responses of H4IIE cells to challenge by 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in combination with PCB-52 and benzo-a-pyrene (BaP) were evaluated by a number of methods in this study. Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) induction in TCDD exposed cells was suppressed by increasing concentrations of PCB-52, PCB-153, or BaP up to 10 mu M. BaP levels below 1 mu M suppressed TCDD stimulated EROD induction, but at higher concentrations, EROD induction was greater than the maximum observed when cells were treated with TCDD alone. A similar biphasic interaction of BaP with TCDD co-exposure was noted in the AlamarBlue assay and to a lesser extent with PCB-52. Surface enhanced laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF) profiling of peptidomic responses of cells exposed to compound combinations was compared. Cells co-exposed to TCDD in the presence of BaP or PCB-52 produced the most differentiated spectra with a substantial number of non-additive interactions observed. These findings suggest that interactions between dioxin and other toxicants create novel, additive, and non-additive effects, which may be more indicative of the types of responses seen in exposed animals than those of single exposures to the individual compounds.

Chemical characterization and in vitro cyto- and genotoxicity of ‘legal high’ products containing Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa)

Kratom is a popular ‘legal high’ mainly constituted by alkaloids extracted from the Mitragyna speciosa plant with mitragynine (MG) as the dominant active substance. The increasing use of Kratom for recreational purposes has alerted risk assessment bodies of the lack of information on the real composition and its potential health risks. The present study aimed to determine and compare the MG composition of 13 commercial products of Kratom sold online and in “smartshops”, by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. For the first time, the cytotoxicity induced by pure MG and Kratom, extracts was evaluated in in vitro models of human intestinal (Caco-2) and neuronal (SH-SY5Y) cells after 6 and 24 h. Genotoxicity was also evaluated in intestinal Caco-2 cells following 24 h of exposure to subtoxic concentrations using the comet assay. The obtained results revealed an inconsistency between the information (‘power’) provided in labels and the MG content. Cytotoxicity tests revealed a concentration-dependent decrease in cell viability in both cellular models, with the SH-SY5Y cells being more sensitive to the Kratom extracts. The resin and the ‘powered extracts’ were the most cytotoxic samples, with IC50 values significantly lower than the leaf extracts and pure MG (P < 0.0001 vs. leaf extracts and MG). In addition, significant DNA damage was observed in Caco-2 cells exposed to these extracts but not to pure MG, which suggests that other substances present in the extracts or interactions involving Kratom components might be responsible for the observed effects.

Investigação da atividade toxicológica de análogos de estatinas em modelos experimentais in vitro

As estatinas são fármacos inibidores competitivos da enzima hidroxi-3-metil-glutaril Coenzima A (HMGCoA) redutase, amplamente utilizados para o controle da hipercolesterolemia total e, em especial, para a redução dos níveis séricos de LDLc (Low Density Lipoprotein cholesterol). Além do efeito primário, esses fármacos apresentam vários efeitos secundários, chamados de efeitos pleiotrópicos, envolvendo atividade anti-inflamatória, antitumoral e antiparasitária. Para o desenvolvimento de inovações na área de química medicinal é imprescindível avaliar o risco de efeitos adversos para saúde ou, em outras palavras, a segurança terapêutica do novo produto nas condições propostas de uso. Nesse sentido, o objetivo desse trabalho foi investigar a genotoxicidade de quatro análogos inibidores da biossíntese de lipídios, da classe das estatinas, em modelos experimentais in vitro, testados previamente contra o clone W2 de Plasmodium falciparum a fim de se obter o IC50 dessas moléculas frente ao patógeno. Foram desenvolvidas quatro novas moléculas (PCSR02.001, PCSR09.001, PCSR08.002 e PCSR10.002). Para a avaliação da toxicidade, foram realizados o teste de mutagenicidade bacteriana (teste de Ames), o ensaio de viabilidade celular utilizando o reagente WST-1 e o ensaio de indução de micronúcleos, ambos utilizando uma linhagem ovariana (CHO-K1) e uma linhagem hepática (HepG2). Levando em conta o fato de nenhuma das amostras ter induzido efeitos mutagênicos nas linhagens de S. enterica sorovar Typhimurium, e PCSR10.002 ter apresentado citotoxicidade sugere-se então que este composto seja o mais tóxico. Comparativamente, PCSR10.002 foi mais genotóxico e citotóxico para a linhagem CHO-K1 do que para a linhagem HepG2. PCSR02.001 apresentou elevado potencial genotóxico para células ovarianas, mas não foi capaz de induzir a formação de micronúcleos em células hepáticas, apresentando, portanto um perfil similar ao observado em PCSR10.002. Assim como a atorvastatina, PCSR09.001 apresentou elevado potencial pró-apoptótico para a linhagem de hepatócitos. Já PCSR08.002, apresentou aumento na apoptose de CHO-K1. A indução de apoptose não é necessariamente um evento negativo, já que é pouco lesiva e responsável pela eliminação de células danificadas. Porém, as respostas de apoptose induzidas por esse composto foram muito inferiores àquelas induzidas pela atorvastatina (cerca de 4 vezes menor que a atorvastatina). PCSR08.002 foi aquele se mostrou menos tóxico e essa amostra foi a que teve menor risco relativo, em uma análise global das respostas de citotoxicidade e não demonstrou ter potencial genotóxico para as linhagens utilizadas nesse estudo. Conclui-se, portanto, que a análise da atividade toxicológica utilizando modelos experimentais in vitro dessas estatinas constitui um importante passo para o estabelecimento de novos candidatos à fármacos com maior segurança.

An efficient in vitro method for mass propagation of Potentilla potaninii wolf

This study reports a method for high-frequency shoot organogenesis and plant establishment of Potentilla potaninii Wolf. Hypocotyl and cotyledon explants of P. potaninii were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with various concentrations of benzyladenine (BA) and alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) to induce adventitious shoot formation for micropropagation. The highest frequency of adventitious shoot regeneration was achieved from hypocotyl and cotyledon explants grown on MS medium supplemented with 5.0 mg l(-1) BA and 1.0 mg l(-1) NAA. The regenerated shoots rooted most efficiently on half-strength MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg l(-1) NAA and 0.5 mg l(-1) indole-3-acetic acid or indole-3-butyric acid. The acclimatized plants with normal morphology and growth characters flowered and set seeds in the following year.