Tubulações de PRFV com adição de areia quartzosa visando sua aplicação na indústria do petróleo

Fillers are often added in composites to enhance performance and/or to reduce cost. Fiberglass pipes must meet performance requirements and industrial sand is frequently added for the pipe to be cost competitive. The sand is added to increase pipe wall thickness, thus increase pipe stiffness. The main goal of the present work is to conduct an experimental investigation between pipes fabricated with and without de addition of sand, to be used in the petroleum industry. Pipes were built using E-glass fibers, polyester resin and siliceous sand. The fabrication process used hand lay up and filament winding and was divided in two different parts: the liner and the structural wall. All tested pipes had the same liner, but different structural wall composition, which is the layer where siliceous sand may be added or not. The comparative investigation was developed considering the results of longitudinal tensile tests, hoop tensile tests, hydrostatic pressure leak tests and parallel-plate loading stiffness tests. SEM was used to analyze if the sand caused any damage to the glass fibers, during the fabrication process, because of the fiber-sand contact. The procedure was also used to verify the composite conditions after the hydrostatic pressure leak test. The results proved that the addition of siliceous sand reduced the leak pressure in about 17 %. In the other hand, this loss in pressure was compensated by a stiffness increment of more than 380 %. MEV analyses show that it is possible to find damage on the fiber-sand contact, but on a very small amount. On most cases, the contact occurs without damage evidences. In summary, the addition of sand filler represented a 27.8 % of cost reduction, when compared to a pipe designed with glass fiber and resin only. This cost reduction combined to the good mechanical tests results make siliceous sand filler suitable for fiberglass pressure pipes

Experimentation and numerical simulation of steel fibre reinforced concrete pipes

The results concerning on an experimental and a numerical study related to SFRCP are presented. Eighteen pipes with an internal diameter of 600 mm and fibre dosages of 10, 20 and 40 kg/m(3) were manufactured and tested. Some technological aspects were concluded. Likewise, a numerical parameterized model was implemented. With this model, the simulation of the resistant behaviour of SFRCP can be performed. In this sense, the results experimentally obtained were contrasted with those suggested by means MAP reaching very satisfactory correlations. Taking it into account, it could be said that the numerical model is a useful tool for the optimal design of the SFRCP fibre dosages, avoiding the need of the systematic employment of the test as an indirect design method. Consequently, the use of this model would reduce the overall cost of the pipes and would give fibres a boost as a solution for this structural typology.

Application of the essential work of fracture method in ranking the performance in service of high-density polyethylene resins employed in pressure pipes

High-density polyethylene resins have increasingly been used in the production of pipes for water- and gas-pressurized distribution systems and are expected to remain in service for several years, but they eventually fail prematurely by creep fracture. Usual standard methods used to rank resins in terms of their resistance to fracture are expensive and non-practical for quality control purposes, justifying the search for alternative methods. Essential work of fracture (EWF) method provides a relatively simple procedure to characterize the fracture behavior of ductile polymers, such as polyethylene resins. In the present work, six resins were analyzed using the EWF methodology. The results show that the plastic work dissipation factor, beta w(p), is the most reliable parameter to evaluate the performance. Attention must be given to specimen preparation that might result in excessive dispersion in the results, especially for the essential work of fracture w(e).

Friction factor for small diameter polyethylene pipes

On this paper, the results of an experimental study oil the hydraulic friction loss for small-diameter polyethylene pipes are reported. The experiment was carried out using a range of Reynolds number between 6000 to 72000, obtained by varying discharge at 20 degrees C water temperature, with internal pipe diameters of 10.0 mm, 12.9 mm, 16.1 mm, 17.4 mm and 19.7 mm. According to the analysis results and experimental conditions, the friction factor 0 of the Darcy-Weisbach equation call be estimated with c = 0.300 and m = 0.25. The Blasius equation (c = 0.316 and m = 0.25) gives an overestimate of friction loss, although this fact is non-restrictive for micro-irrigation system designs. The analysis shows that both the Blasius and the adjusted equation parameters allow for accurate friction factor estimates, characterized by low mean error (5.1%).

The work of fracture in uniaxial and biaxial oriented unplasticised polyvinylchloride pipes

In oriented unplasticised polyvinylchloride (uPVC) pipes, cracks propagate tangentially rather than through the wall as in conventional pipe. Notched impact, a modified peel test and the specific work of fracture approach have been used to measure fracture toughness of a conventionally extruded, a uniaxially oriented and a biaxially oriented uPVC pipe in different directions. The different failure mode for the oriented pipes was found to result from an order of magnitude increase in the fracture toughness for cracks propagating perpendicular to the orientation direction. Differences in the fracture toughness between the oriented pipes were also related to their molecular orientation. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Wells turbine: fiberglass flanges

A introdução desta tese começa por realizar um enquadramento do projecto em mão, apresentando a central de energia das ondas em que se encontram os componentes em fibra de vidro a projectar. Esta central usa o princípio de variação de coluna de água, e encontra-se localizada na ilha do Pico, Açores. São de seguida apresentados os objectivos deste trabalho, que consistem na selecção de materiais de fabrico dos componentes, desenvolvimento de uma metodologia para projectar juntas aparafusadas em materiais compósitos, dimensionamento e comparação de duas juntas concorrentes em materiais compósitos: junta solicitada à tracção e junta solicitada ao corte, validação da análise e estudo das causas dos vários tipos de falha destas juntas. A parte I deste trabalho é o resultado da pesquisa bibliográfica efectuada para levar a cabo os objectivos definidos. Assim, começa por se fazer uma descrição dos materiais e processos de fabrico que mais se adequam ao presente projecto, nomeadamente fibra de vidro, resinas, tecidos, impregnação manual, RTM e infusão por vácuo. Daqui resultou que os materiais mais adequados para esta aplicação são fibra de vidro do tipo E e resina polyester devido ao seu baixo custo e larga utilização em aplicações estruturais marinhas. O processo de fabrico mais eficiente é a infusão por vácuo devido á sua vocação para pequenas séries de produção, a poupança que permite em termos de mão-de-obra, a complacência com normas de emissão de voláteis e as boas propriedades das partes produzidas. No capítulo II da parte I são discutidos os tópicos relacionados com juntas em materiais compósitos. Da pesquisa levada a cabo conclui-se que as grandes vantagens das juntas aparafusadas são a sua facilidade de montagem e desmontagem, facilidade de inspecção e capacidade de ligar quaisquer tipos de materiais. Quanto à furação de compósitos é importante referir a necessidade de utilizar ferramentas resistentes e parâmetros de maquinação que minimizem o dano infligido aos laminados. Isto é possível através da selecção de ferramentas com passos baixos que reduzam igualmente a dimensão do seu centro estático responsável pela força axial exercida sobre o laminado - principal factor causador de dano. Devem-se igualmente utilizar baixas velocidades de avanço e elevadas velocidades de rotação. É importante salientar a importância da realização de pré-furação, de utilização de um prato de suporte na superfície de saída do laminado e a existência de ferramentas especialmente concebidas para a furação de compósitos. Para detectar e quantificar o dano existente num furo destacam-se os métodos de inspecção ultrasónica e a radiografia. Quanto aos parâmetros que influenciaram o comportamento de juntas aparafusadas destacam-se os rácios largura/diâmetro, distância ao bordo/diâmetro, espessura/diâmetro, pré-tensão, fricção, sequência de empilhamento e respectivas proporções, dimensão das anilhas e folga entre o parafuso e o furo. A pesquisa efectuada visando metodologias de projecto fiáveis ditou a necessidade de utilizar métodos que permitiram determinar o parafuso mais carregado de uma junta, efectuar o cálculo de tensões no mesmo, e ainda métodos que permitam determinar a primeira falha que ocorre no laminado bem como a falha final no mesmo. O capítulo III da primeira parte descreve os métodos de análise de tensões necessários para as metodologias de projecto utilizadas. Aqui é apresentada a teoria clássica da laminação, um método para determinação do parafuso mais carregado, um método analítico baseado na teoria da elasticidade anisotrópica de um corpo e o método dos elementos finitos. O método para determinar o parafuso mais carregado - análise global - consiste num modelo bidimensional de elementos finitos em que 2 laminados coincidentes são modelados com elementos lineares de casca com 4 nós, sendo a extremidade de um laminado restringida em todos os graus de liberdade e a extremidade oposta do segundo laminado carregada com a carga pretendida. Os laminados são ligados através de elementos mola que simulam os parafusos, sendo a sua constante de rigidez previamente calculada para este fim. O método analítico modela o contacto assumindo uma distribuição de pressão cosinoidal ao longo de metade do furo, e é válido para laminados simétricos e quasi-isotrópicos. O método dos elementos finitos é o que mais factores permite ter em conta, sendo os modelos tridimensionais com um elemento por camada os que melhor modelam o estado de tensões experienciado por uma junta aparafusada em materiais compósitos. O tópico de análise de falha é abordado no capítulo 4 da primeira parte. Aqui são apresentados os resultados do world wide failure exercice que compara vários critérios de falha existentes até 2004, fazendo-se referência a desenvolvimentos recentes que têm ocorrido nesta área. O critério de Puck surge como aquele que permite previsões de falha mais exactas. O critério de falha de Hashin 3D foi o escolhido para o presente trabalho, devido à sua facilidade de implementação num modelo de elementos finitos, à sua capacidade para detectar modos de falha subcríticos e à sua utilização em trabalhos anteriores que apresentaram previsões de falha muito próximas dos dados experimentais. Também neste capítulo se apresentaram os vários tipos de falha de uma junta aparafusada em materiais compósitos, apresentando as causas de cada uma. Por fim, na última secção, apresenta-se o método de dano progressivo que se desenvolveu para prever a primeira falha final do laminado. Este é muito interessante tendo permitido previsões de falha muito próximas dos resultados experimentais em trabalhos anteriores. Este método é iterativo e encontra-se dividido em 3 passos: Análise de tensões, análise de falha utilizando o critério de Hashin 3D e degradação de propriedades, de acordo com o tipo de falha detectada. Para além dos passos referidos, existe ainda um quarto responsável pelo fim da análise que consiste na aferição da existência ou não de falha final e respectivo tipo de falha (por pressão de contacto, por tensão ou por esforços de corte). No capítulo V da primeira parte é apresentado o resultado de uma pesquisa das normas de teste necessárias para obter as propriedades dos materiais requeridas para a aplicação dos métodos descritos neste trabalho. A parte II deste trabalho consiste na aplicação dos métodos apresentados na parte I ao caso concreto em estudo. Os softwares Microsoft Excel, Matlab e ANSYS foram utilizados para este fim. A junta começa por ser dimensionada estimando a espessura necessária do componente e o número e características dos parafusos. De seguida foi feita uma análise global à flange em estudo determinando a força suportada pelo parafuso mais carregado. Após esta análise desenvolveu-se um modelo tridimensional de elementos finitos da zona em que se encontra o parafuso mais carregado, utilizando elementos sólidos lineares e isoparamétricos de 8 nós e uma malha gerada pelo método directo. Aplicou-se a este modelo o algoritmo de dano progressivo descrito na primeira parte. Começou por se incluir explicitamente o parafuso, anilhas, pré-tensão e a modelação dos vários contactos com fricção posteriormente simplificado o modelo restringindo radialmente os nós da porção carregada do furo, excluindo os factores mencionados inicialmente. Procurou-se validar o modelo utilizando o método de cálculo de tensões descrito na primeira parte, desenvolvendo um programa em Matlab para o efeito. Tal não foi possível tendo-se incluído a tentativa realizada em anexo. Para efeitos de dimensionamento, desenvolveu-se um modelo de elementos finitos de duas dimensões da junta em causa, utilizando elementos de casca lineares de quatro nós isoparamétricos com uma espessura unitária. Através da análise de tensões efectuada com este modelo, e utilizando um método combinado programado em linguagem paramétrica, foi possível dimensionar as duas juntas concorrentes pretendidas. Este método combinado consistiu no cálculo de tensões em pontos localizados sobre uma curva característica e utilização de um critério de falha quadrático para cálculo da espessura necessária para a junta. O dimensionamento ditou que a junta solicitada à tensão necessita de pelo menos 127% das camadas e do custo de uma junta solicitada ao corte equivalente.

Behavior study of pipes after forming, coating and bending

A study of the main types of coatings and its processes that modern industry commonly apply to prevent to the corrosion due to the environmental effects to energetic market pipelines have been done. Extracting main time and temperature range values, coating heat treatment recreation have been applied to x65 pipelines steel grade samples obtained from a pipe which was formed using UOE forming process. Experimental tensile tests and Charpy V‐Notch Impact test have been carried out for a deeply knowledge of the influence on the steel once this recreations are applied. The Yield Strength and toughness have been improved despite lower values in rupture strain and ductile‐brittle temperature transition have been obtained. Finite Element Method have been applied to simulate the entirely pipe cold bending process to predict the mechanical properties and behaviour of the pipe made from x65 steel grade under different conditions.

Investigation of Plastic Pipes for Highway Applications, HR-373A, Phase II, 1997

It is generally accepted that high density polyethylene pipe (HDPE) performs well under live loads with shallow cover, provided the backfill is well compacted. Although industry standards require carefully compacted backfill, poor inspection and/or faulty construction may result in soils that provide inadequate restraint at the springlines of the pipes thereby causing failure. The objectives of this study were: 1) to experimentally define a lower limit of compaction under which the pipes perform satisfactorily, 2) to quantify the increase in soil support as compaction effort increases, 3) to evaluate pipe response for loads applied near the ends of the buried pipes, 4) to determine minimum depths of cover for a variety of pipes and soil conditions by analytically expanding the experimental results through the use of the finite element program CANDE. The test procedures used here are conservative especially for low-density fills loaded to high contact stresses. The failures observed in these tests were the combined effect of soil bearing capacity at the soil surface and localized wall bending of the pipes. Under a pavement system, the pipes' performance would be expected to be considerably better. With those caveats, the following conclusions are drawn from this study. Glacial till compacted to 50% and 80% provides insufficient support; pipe failureoccurs at surface contact stresses lower than those induced by highway trucks. On the other hand, sand backfill compacted to more than 110 pcf (17.3 kN/m3) is satisfactory. The failure mode for all pipes with all backfills is localized wall bending. At moderate tire pressures, i.e. contact stresses, deflections are reduced significantly when backfill density is increased from about 50 pcf (7.9 kN/m^3) to 90 pcf (14.1 kN/m^3). Above that unit weight, little improvement in the soil-pipe system is observed. Although pipe stiffness may vary as much as 16%, analyses show that backfill density is more important than pipe stiffness in controlling both deflections at low pipe stresses and at the ultimate capacity of the soil-pipe system. The rate of increase in ultimate strength of the system increases nearly linearly with increasing backfill density. When loads equivalent to moderate tire pressures are applied near the ends of the pipes, pipe deflections are slighly higher than when loaded at the center. Except for low density glacial till, the deflections near the ends are not excessive and the pipes perform satisfactorily. For contact stresses near the upper limit of truck tire pressures and when loaded near the end, pipes fail with localized wall bending. For flowable fill backfill, the ultimate capacity of the pipes is nearly doubled and at the upper limit of highway truck tire pressures, deflections are negligible. All pipe specimens tested at ambient laboratory room temperatures satisfied AASHTO minimum pipe stiffness requirements at 5% deflection. However, nearly all specimens tested at elevated pipe surface temperatures, approximately 122°F (50°C), failed to meet these requirements. Some HDPE pipe installations may not meet AASHTO minimum pipe stiffness requirements when installed in the summer months (i.e. if pipe surface temperatures are allowed to attain temperatures similar to those tested here). Heating of any portion of the pipe circumference reduced the load carrying capacity of specimens. The minimum soil cover depths, determined from the CANOE analysis, are controlled by the 5% deflection criterion. The minimum soil cover height is 12 in. (305 mm). Pipes with the poor silt and clay backfills with less than 85% compaction require a minimum soil cover height of 24 in. (610 mm). For the sand at 80% compaction, the A36 HDPE pipe with the lowest moment of inertia requires a minimum of 24 in. (610 mm) soil cover. The C48 HDPE pipe with the largest moment of inertia and all other pipes require a 12 in. (305 mm) minimum soil cover.

Simulation of Boundary Layers and Heat Transfer in the Entrance Region of Pipes

The study of fluid flow in pipes is one of the main topic of interest for engineers in industries. In this thesis, an effort is made to study the boundary layers formed near the wall of the pipe and how it behaves as a resistance to heat transfer. Before few decades, the scientists used to derive the analytical and empirical results by hand as there were limited means available to solve the complex fluid flow phenomena. Due to the increase in technology, now it has been practically possible to understand and analyze the actual fluid flow in any type of geometry. Several methodologies have been used in the past to analyze the boundary layer equations and to derive the expression for heat transfer. An integral relation approach is used for the analytical solution of the boundary layer equations and is compared with the FLUENT simulations for the laminar case. Law of the wall approach is used to derive the empirical correlation between dimensionless numbers and is then compared with the results from FLUENT for the turbulent case. In this thesis, different approaches like analytical, empirical and numerical are compared for the same set of fluid flow equations.

Fluid flow in T-junction of pipes

The aim of this work is to study flow properties at T-junction of pipe, pressure loss suffered by the flow after passing through T-junction and to study reliability of the classical engineering formulas used to find head loss for T-junction of pipes. In this we have compared our results with CFD software packages with classical formula and made an attempt to determine accuracy of the classical formulas. In this work we have studies head loss in T-junction of pipes with various inlet velocities, head loss in T-junction of pipes when the angle of the junction is slightly different from 90 degrees and T-junction with different area of cross-section of the main pipe and branch pipe. In this work we have simulated the flow at T-junction of pipe with FLUENT and Comsol Multiphysics and observed flow properties inside the T-junction and studied the head loss suffered by fluid flow after passing through the junction. We have also compared pressure (head) losses obtained by classical formulas by A. Vazsonyi and Andrew Gardel and formulas obtained by assuming T-junction as combination of other pipe components and observations obtained from software experiments. One of the purposes of this study is also to study change in pressure loss with change in angle of T-junction. Using software we can have better view of flow inside the junction and study turbulence, kinetic energy, pressure loss etc. Such simulations save a lot of time and can be performed without actually doing the experiment. There were no real life experiments made, the results obtained completely rely on accuracy of software and numerical methods used.

Modelling head loss along emitting pipes using dimensional analysis

Local head losses must be considered in estimating properly the maximum length of drip irrigation laterals. The aim of this work was to develop a model based on dimensional analysis for calculating head loss along laterals accounting for in-line drippers. Several measurements were performed with 12 models of emitters to obtain the experimental data required for developing and assessing the model. Based on the Camargo & Sentelhas coefficient, the model presented an excellent result in terms of precision and accuracy on estimating head loss. The deviation between estimated and observed values of head loss increased according to the head loss and the maximum deviation reached 0.17 m. The maximum relative error was 33.75% and only 15% of the data set presented relative errors higher than 20%. Neglecting local head losses incurred a higher than estimated maximum lateral length of 19.48% for pressure-compensating drippers and 16.48% for non pressure-compensating drippers.

Two-Phase (Solid-Liquid) Flow in Inclined Pipes

This paper presents an experimental research about the behavior of two-phase flows in inclined pipes. The inclination angle varied from 5° to 45° and the slurry solid concentration varied up to 15%. It was concluded that the head losses of the downward sloping pipe flow are always lower than the head losses of the horizontal flow and these are always lower than the head losses of the upward sloping pipe flow, regardless the concentration and inclination angle. It was possible to develop empirical equations to calculate the head losses of the horizontal flow and the upward and downward sloping pipe flows.

Receipt from Geo. Lloyd of St. Catharines for work done regarding heating and pipes

Receipt from Geo. Lloyd of St. Catharines for work done regarding heating and pipes, Jan. 1, 1877.