Community pharmacist intervention in depressed primary care patients (PRODEFAR study): randomized controlled trial protocol.

Background: Treatment of depression, the most prevalent and costly mental disorder, needs to be improved. Non-concordance with clinical guidelines and non-adherence can limit the efficacy of pharmacological treatment of depression. Through pharmaceutical care, pharmacists can improve patients' compliance and wellbeing. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness and costeffectiveness of a community pharmacist intervention developed to improve adherence and outcomes of primary care patients with depression. Methods/design: A randomized controlled trial, with 6-month follow-up, comparing patients receiving a pharmaceutical care support programme in primary care with patients receiving usual care. The total sample comprises 194 patients (aged between 18 and 75) diagnosed with depressive disorder in a primary care health centre in the province of Barcelona (Spain). Subjects will be asked for written informed consent in order to participate in the study. Diagnosis will be confirmed using the SCID-I. The intervention consists of an educational programme focused on improving knowledge about medication, making patients aware of the importance of compliance, reducing stigma, reassuring patients about side-effects and stressing the importance of carrying out general practitioners' advice. Measurements will take place at baseline, and after 3 and 6 months. Main outcome measure is compliance with antidepressants. Secondary outcomes include; clinical severity of depression (PHQ-9), anxiety (STAI-S), health-related quality of life (EuroQol-5D), satisfaction with the treatment received, side-effects, chronic physical conditions and sociodemographics. The use of healthcare and social care services will be assessed with an adapted version of the Client Service Receipt Inventory (CSRI). Discussion: This trial will provide valuable information for health professionals and policy makers on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a pharmaceutical intervention programme in the context of primary care. Trial registration: NCT00794196

Community pharmacist intervention in depressed primary care patients (PRODEFAR study): randomized controlled trial protocol.

Background: Treatment of depression, the most prevalent and costly mental disorder, needs to be improved. Non-concordance with clinical guidelines and non-adherence can limit the efficacy of pharmacological treatment of depression. Through pharmaceutical care, pharmacists can improve patients' compliance and wellbeing. The aim of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness and costeffectiveness of a community pharmacist intervention developed to improve adherence and outcomes of primary care patients with depression. Methods/design: A randomized controlled trial, with 6-month follow-up, comparing patients receiving a pharmaceutical care support programme in primary care with patients receiving usual care. The total sample comprises 194 patients (aged between 18 and 75) diagnosed with depressive disorder in a primary care health centre in the province of Barcelona (Spain). Subjects will be asked for written informed consent in order to participate in the study. Diagnosis will be confirmed using the SCID-I. The intervention consists of an educational programme focused on improving knowledge about medication, making patients aware of the importance of compliance, reducing stigma, reassuring patients about side-effects and stressing the importance of carrying out general practitioners' advice. Measurements will take place at baseline, and after 3 and 6 months. Main outcome measure is compliance with antidepressants. Secondary outcomes include; clinical severity of depression (PHQ-9), anxiety (STAI-S), health-related quality of life (EuroQol-5D), satisfaction with the treatment received, side-effects, chronic physical conditions and sociodemographics. The use of healthcare and social care services will be assessed with an adapted version of the Client Service Receipt Inventory (CSRI). Discussion: This trial will provide valuable information for health professionals and policy makers on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a pharmaceutical intervention programme in the context of primary care. Trial registration: NCT00794196

Cost-effectiveness of a community pharmacist intervention in patients with depression: a randomized controlled trial (PRODEFAR study)

Background: Non-adherence to antidepressants generates higher costs for the treatment of depression. Little is known about the cost-effectiveness of pharmacist's interventions aimed at improving adherence to antidepressants. The study aimed to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a community pharmacist intervention in comparison with usual care in depressed patients initiating treatment with antidepressants in primary care. Methods: Patients were recruited by general practitioners and randomized to community pharmacist intervention (87) that received an educational intervention and usual care (92). Adherence to antidepressants, clinical symptoms, Quality-Adjusted Life-Years (QALYs), use of healthcare services and productivity losses were measured at baseline, 3 and 6 months. Results: There were no significant differences between groups in costs or effects. From a societal perspective, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) for the community pharmacist intervention compared with usual care was 1,866 for extra adherent patient and 9,872 per extra QALY. In terms of remission of depressive symptoms, the usual care dominated the community pharmacist intervention. If willingness to pay (WTP) is 30,000 per extra adherent patient, remission of symptoms or QALYs, the probability of the community pharmacist intervention being cost-effective was 0.71, 0.46 and 0.75, respectively (societal perspective). From a healthcare perspective, the probability of the community pharmacist intervention being cost-effective in terms of adherence, QALYs and remission was of 0.71, 0.76 and 0.46, respectively, if WTP is 30,000. Conclusion: A brief community pharmacist intervention addressed to depressed patients initiating antidepressant treatment showed a probability of being cost-effective of 0.71 and 0.75 in terms of improvement of adherence and QALYs, respectively, when compared to usual care. Regular implementation of the community pharmacist intervention is not recommended.

A study of the role of the community pharmacist in responding to symptons

Factors affecting the current role of the community pharmacist in responding to symptoms are investigated. Communication and collaboration with general medical practitioners (GPs), and the competency of pharmacists and counter assistants to perform the role of responding to symptoms, are examined. A national survey of GPs, conducted by postal questionnaire, explores attitudes towards the role of the community pharmacist in the treatment of patients' symptoms, and towards future extension of such a role. A majority (over 90%) of respondents thought that the counter prescribing activities of the pharmacist should be maintained or increased. Doctors supported treatment of most minor illnesses by pharmacists, but there was relatively little support for the deregulation of selected Prescription Only Medicines. Three quarters of respondents were in favour of joint educational meetings for pharmacists and doctors. Most GPs (85%) expressed support for a formal referral route from pharmacists to doctors, using a "notification card". A pilot study of the use of a notification card was conducted . Two thirds of the patients who were advised to see their doctor by the pharmacist subsequently did so. In most cases , the GP rated the patients' symptoms " significant" and the card "helpful". Pharmacists' and counter assistants' competency in responding to symptoms was assessed by a programme of pharmacy visits, where previously-defined symptoms were presented. Some pharmacists' questioning skills were found to be inadequate, and their knowledge not sufficiently current. Counter assistants asked fewer and less appropriate questions than did pharmacists, and assistants ' knowledge base was shown to be inadequate. Recommendations are made in relation to the education and training of pharmacists and counter assistants in responding to symptoms .

Study of the potential role of the community pharmacist in health promotion

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Community pharmacist perceptions of the loss of resale price maintenance

Focal points: This study was designed to elicit the views of community pharmacists on any perceived business and professional changes following the loss of resale price maintenance (RPM)A piloted, 22-point self-completion questionnaire containing open, closed and scaled response questions was distributed to 35 independent (<10 stores), 13 multiple group and three supermarket-based pharmacies, and 40 responses were obtained (29 independent, eight multiple and three supermarket)Theme analysis indicated that 20 respondents felt that an increased range of services was now provided, 27 reported a decreased sales potential and 25 thought that patients now purchased more medicinesThe average price at which eight common over-the-counter medicines were offered was found to be £4.34 in independents, £4.37 in multiples and £4.22 in the supermarket pharmacies, compared with an average standard list price of £4.32There are indications that removal of RPM may have instigated changes in community pharmacy

An examination of the UK community pharmacist's role in facilitating patient self-management of cardiovascular disease through lifestyle behaviours

The progression of cardiovascular disease (CVD) is largely modifiable through lifestyle behaviours. UK pharmacists are contractually obliged to facilitate patient self-management of chronic conditions such as CVD. Pharmacists are easily accessible health professionals who are well placed to identify “at risk” patients through medication regimes. Research has identified varying attitudes towards and levels of involvement in pharmacist-led health promotion activity. Given the diverse and exploratory nature of the work, a pragmatic, mixed methods approach was used to explore community pharmacists’ role in facilitating patient self-management of CVD. The thesis presents four studies: a qualitative study with pharmacists; a cross sectional questionnaire of community pharmacists; a systematic review and a qualitative study with patients with CVD. The qualitative study with pharmacists gave an insight into pharmacists’ experiences of giving patients with CVD lifestyle advice and the factors underpinning commonly cited barriers to providing public health services. This informed the development of the cross-sectional questionnaire which identified the predictors of pharmacists’ intentions to give two different types of advice to facilitate patient self-management. The systematic review identified a small number of interventions to prepare pharmacists to facilitate patient lifestyle behaviour change and evaluated the theories and behaviour change techniques used in successful interventions; however due to poor study quality and poor reporting of the interventions limited conclusions about the efficacy of the interventions could reliably be drawn. Finally, the qualitative study gave an insight into the experiences of patients with CVD using community pharmacy services and their expectations of the service they receive from community pharmacists. Recommendations about changes to pharmacy policy and practice in order to support pharmacists’ provision of CVD self-management advice are made.

Pharmacist monitoring of patient health in the community

The Government has established essential principles in order to make significant improvements in the health of the people and has placed an emphasis on shifting care to the primary sening. This research has explored the potential role of the community pharmacist in health promotion in the pharmacy, and at general medical practices. The feasibility of monitoring patients' health status in the community was evaluated by intervention to assess and alter cardiovascular risk factors.68, hypertensive patients, monitored at one surgery, had a change in mean systolic blood pressure from 158.28 to 146.55 mmHg, a reduction of 7.4%, and a change in mean diastolic bood pressure from 90.91 to 84.85 mmHg, a reduction of 6.7%.120 patients, from a cohort of 449 at the major practice, with an initial serum total cholesterol of 6.0+mmol/L, experienced a change in mean value from 6.79 to 6.05 mmol/L, equivalent to a reduction of 10.9%. 86% of this patient cohort showed a decrease in cholesterol concentration. Patients, placed in a high risk category according to their coronary rank score, assessed at the first health screening, showed a consistent and significant improvement in coronary score throughout the study period of two years. High risk and intermediate risk patients showed improvements in coronary score of 52% and 14% respectively. Patients in the low risk group maintained their good coronary score. In some cases, a patient's improvement was effected in liaison with the GP, after a change or addition of medication and/or dosage.Pharmacist intervention consisted of advice on diet and lifestyle and adherence to medication regimes. It was concluded that a pharmacist can facilitate a health screening programme in the primary care setting, and provide enhanced continuity of care for the patient.

Effectiveness of a drug dosing service provided by community pharmacists in polymedicated elderly patients with renal impairment a comparative study

Background: Drug dosing errors are common in renal-impaired patients. Appropriate dosing adjustment and drug selection is important to ensure patients" safety and to avoid adverse drug effects and poor outcomes. There are few studies on this issue in community pharmacies. The aims of this study were, firstly, to determine the prevalence of dosing inadequacy as a consequence of renal impairment in patients over 65 taking 3 or more drug products who were being attended in community pharmacies and, secondly, to evaluate the effectiveness of the community pharmacist"s intervention in improving dosing inadequacy in these patients when compared with usual care. Methods: The study was carried out in 40 Spanish community pharmacies. The study had two phases: the first, with an observational, multicentre, cross sectional design, served to determine the dosing inadequacy, the drug-related problems per patient and to obtain the control group. The second phase, with a controlled study with historical control group, was the intervention phase. When dosing adjustments were needed, the pharmacists made recommendations to the physicians. A comparison was made between the control and the intervention group regarding the prevalence of drug dosing inadequacy and the mean number of drug-related problems per patient. Results: The mean of the prevalence of drug dosing inadequacy was 17.5% [95% CI 14.6-21.5] in phase 1 and 15.5% [95% CI 14.5-16.6] in phase 2. The mean number of drug-related problems per patient was 0.7 [95% CI 0.5-0.8] in phase 1 and 0.50 [95% CI 0.4-0.6] in phase 2. The difference in the prevalence of dosing inadequacy between the control and intervention group before the pharmacists" intervention was 0.73% [95% CI (−6.0) - 7.5] and after the pharmacists" intervention it was 13.5% [95% CI 8.0 - 19.5] (p < 0.001) while the difference in the mean of drug-related problems per patient before the pharmacists" intervention was 0.05 [95% CI( -0.2) - 0.3] and following the intervention it was 0.5 [95% CI 0.3 - 0.7] (p < 0.001). Conclusion: A drug dosing adjustment service for elderly patients with renal impairment in community pharmacies can increase the proportion of adequate drug dosing, and improve the drug-related problems per patient. Collaborative practice with physicians can improve these results.

Effectiveness of a drug dosing service provided by community pharmacists in polymedicated elderly patients with renal impairment a comparative study

Background: Drug dosing errors are common in renal-impaired patients. Appropriate dosing adjustment and drug selection is important to ensure patients" safety and to avoid adverse drug effects and poor outcomes. There are few studies on this issue in community pharmacies. The aims of this study were, firstly, to determine the prevalence of dosing inadequacy as a consequence of renal impairment in patients over 65 taking 3 or more drug products who were being attended in community pharmacies and, secondly, to evaluate the effectiveness of the community pharmacist"s intervention in improving dosing inadequacy in these patients when compared with usual care. Methods: The study was carried out in 40 Spanish community pharmacies. The study had two phases: the first, with an observational, multicentre, cross sectional design, served to determine the dosing inadequacy, the drug-related problems per patient and to obtain the control group. The second phase, with a controlled study with historical control group, was the intervention phase. When dosing adjustments were needed, the pharmacists made recommendations to the physicians. A comparison was made between the control and the intervention group regarding the prevalence of drug dosing inadequacy and the mean number of drug-related problems per patient. Results: The mean of the prevalence of drug dosing inadequacy was 17.5% [95% CI 14.6-21.5] in phase 1 and 15.5% [95% CI 14.5-16.6] in phase 2. The mean number of drug-related problems per patient was 0.7 [95% CI 0.5-0.8] in phase 1 and 0.50 [95% CI 0.4-0.6] in phase 2. The difference in the prevalence of dosing inadequacy between the control and intervention group before the pharmacists" intervention was 0.73% [95% CI (−6.0) - 7.5] and after the pharmacists" intervention it was 13.5% [95% CI 8.0 - 19.5] (p < 0.001) while the difference in the mean of drug-related problems per patient before the pharmacists" intervention was 0.05 [95% CI( -0.2) - 0.3] and following the intervention it was 0.5 [95% CI 0.3 - 0.7] (p < 0.001). Conclusion: A drug dosing adjustment service for elderly patients with renal impairment in community pharmacies can increase the proportion of adequate drug dosing, and improve the drug-related problems per patient. Collaborative practice with physicians can improve these results.

Effectiveness of a drug dosing service provided by community pharmacists in polymedicated elderly patients with renal impairment a comparative study

Background: Drug dosing errors are common in renal-impaired patients. Appropriate dosing adjustment and drug selection is important to ensure patients" safety and to avoid adverse drug effects and poor outcomes. There are few studies on this issue in community pharmacies. The aims of this study were, firstly, to determine the prevalence of dosing inadequacy as a consequence of renal impairment in patients over 65 taking 3 or more drug products who were being attended in community pharmacies and, secondly, to evaluate the effectiveness of the community pharmacist"s intervention in improving dosing inadequacy in these patients when compared with usual care. Methods: The study was carried out in 40 Spanish community pharmacies. The study had two phases: the first, with an observational, multicentre, cross sectional design, served to determine the dosing inadequacy, the drug-related problems per patient and to obtain the control group. The second phase, with a controlled study with historical control group, was the intervention phase. When dosing adjustments were needed, the pharmacists made recommendations to the physicians. A comparison was made between the control and the intervention group regarding the prevalence of drug dosing inadequacy and the mean number of drug-related problems per patient. Results: The mean of the prevalence of drug dosing inadequacy was 17.5% [95% CI 14.6-21.5] in phase 1 and 15.5% [95% CI 14.5-16.6] in phase 2. The mean number of drug-related problems per patient was 0.7 [95% CI 0.5-0.8] in phase 1 and 0.50 [95% CI 0.4-0.6] in phase 2. The difference in the prevalence of dosing inadequacy between the control and intervention group before the pharmacists" intervention was 0.73% [95% CI (−6.0) - 7.5] and after the pharmacists" intervention it was 13.5% [95% CI 8.0 - 19.5] (p < 0.001) while the difference in the mean of drug-related problems per patient before the pharmacists" intervention was 0.05 [95% CI( -0.2) - 0.3] and following the intervention it was 0.5 [95% CI 0.3 - 0.7] (p < 0.001). Conclusion: A drug dosing adjustment service for elderly patients with renal impairment in community pharmacies can increase the proportion of adequate drug dosing, and improve the drug-related problems per patient. Collaborative practice with physicians can improve these results.

Influences on general practitioner prescribing with particular reference to community pharmacy

Influences on general practitioner prescribing of drugs continue to be of interest and importance as cost containment becomes central to Government health policy. This thesis employs a plurality of research methods including quantitative and qualitative survey techniques for example, questionnaires, interviews and prescription analyses to investigate some of the factors which may influence GP prescribing such as information sources, hospital consultants and in particular the community pharmacist. When the use and influence of drug information sources by GPs was examined, the community pharmacist was given a relatively low rating as a source but a high rating, similar to that of the consultant, for helpfulness. Influences are needed to improve prescribing and reduce the incidence of iatrogenic disease for the benefit of the patient. The education and expertise of pharmacists and their familiarity with local prescribing habits places them in a unique position to meet the needs of local GPs. As 96.5% of the public always or nearly always take their prescriptions to the same pharmacy, patient medication records, now kept by 77.5% of pharmacies, provide a valuable check on the appropriateness and safety of patients' medication. The barriers to the pharmacist's greater involvement were shown to be suspicion by GPs of pharmacists' motivation, isolation of many community pharmacists, difficulties in leaving the pharmacy for domiciliary visits, residential home care and GP practice meetings. These barriers must be lowered if the pharmacist is to have a greater influence and involvement. It was concluded that changes are necessary in pharmaceutical education, staff training, organisation and remuneration. Some changes in the targeting of remuneration to the pharmaceutical care services provided and registration of patients with pharmacies would contribute greatly to these aims.

Community pharmacists’ understanding, attitudes, practice and perceived barriers related to providing pharmaceutical care: a questionnaire-based survey in Macao

Purpose: To explore the knowledge, attitudes, practice and perceived barriers of community pharmacists regarding provision of pharmaceutical care as well as provide recommendations on how to advance the service during the early stage of development in Macao. Methods: A questionnaire comprising 10 items was used to collect respondents’ demographic information and to evaluate their understanding of pharmaceutical care, attitude towards service provision, current practice and perceived barriers. Descriptive and comparative analysis of the results was conducted. Results: While 95 % of the participating pharmacists agreed that patients’ health was their primary responsibility, only 57 % believed that they can provide better pharmaceutical care in the future. The majority spent most of their work time counselling patients (90 %) and checking prescription (70 %). Only a small portion monitored adverse drug reaction and drug compliance (44 %), engaged in health screening or drug safety promotion (20 %) or maintained patient medication records (4 %). Insufficient communication with physicians (90 %), lack of time (79 %) and lack of physical space at the pharmacy (76 %) were considered the most significant barriers. Conclusion: A suboptimal level of pharmaceutical care is provided by pharmacists in Macao. Considering the barriers identified and integrating other country experiences, establishing an enabling atmosphere using policy and regulatory measures is the fundamental element for advancing pharmaceutical care by community pharmacists.

La collaboration médecin-pharmacien en soins de première ligne pour la gestion des dyslipidémies : un essai clinique contrôlé et randomisé en grappe (étude TEAM)

L’hypothèse de cette thèse est qu’une pratique collaborative médecins de famille-pharmaciens communautaires (PCMP) où le pharmacien fournit des soins pharmaceutiques avancés avec ajustement posologique d’une statine permettrait aux patients avec une dyslipidémie une réduction plus importante de leur LDL et augmenterait le nombre de patients atteignant leurs cibles lipidiques. Dans une étude clinique contrôlée et randomisée en grappe visant à évaluer une PCMP pour des patients ayant une dyslipidémie (l’étude TEAM), une journée de formation basée sur un protocole de traitement et des outils cliniques a été offerte aux pharmaciens PCMP pour les préparer à fournir des soins pharmaceutiques avancés. Les connaissances des pharmaciens sur les dyslipidémies étaient faibles avant la formation mais se sont améliorées après (moyenne de 45,8% à 88,2%; p < 0,0001). Après la formation, les pharmaciens avaient un haut niveau d’habiletés cliniques théoriques et pratiques. Bref, une journée de formation basée sur un protocole de traitement et des outils cliniques était nécessaire et adéquate pour préparer les pharmaciens à fournir des soins pharmaceutiques avancés à des patients ayant une dyslipidémie dans le contexte d’une étude clinique. Dans l’étude TEAM, 15 grappes de médecins et de pharmaciens (PCMP : 8; soins habituels (SH) : 7) ont suivi pendant un an, 225 patients (PCMP : 108; SH : 117) à risque modéré ou élevé de maladie coronarienne qui débutaient ou étaient déjà traités par une monothérapie avec une statine mais qui n’avaient pas atteint les cibles lipidiques. Au départ, par rapport aux patients SH, les patients PCMP avaient un niveau de LDL plus élevé (3,5 mmol/L vs 3,2 mmol/L) et recevaient moins de statine à puissance élevée (11,1 % vs 39,7 %). Après 12 mois, la différence moyenne du changement de LDL entre les groupes était égale à -0,2 mmol/L (IC95%: -0,3 à -0,1) et -0,04 (IC95%: -0,3 à 0,2), sans ajustement et avec ajustement, respectivement. Le risque relatif d’atteindre les cibles lipidiques était 1,10 (IC95%: 0,95 à 1,26) et 1,16 (1,01 à 1,32), sans ajustement et avec ajustement, respectivement. Les patients PCMP ont eu plus de visites avec un professionnel de la santé et d’analyses de laboratoire et étaient plus enclins à rapporter des changements de style de vie. La PCMP a amélioré l’adhésion aux lignes directrices en augmentant la proportion de patients aux cibles lipidiques. Les données intérimaires de l’étude TEAM (PCMP : 100 patients; SH : 67 patients) ont permis d’évaluer les coûts directs annuels du suivi du pharmacien du groupe PCMP (formation, visites, laboratoire), du médecin (visites, laboratoire) et du traitement hypolipémiant. Le suivi du pharmacien a coûté 404,07$/patient, incluant 320,67$ pour former les pharmaciens. Le coût global incrémental était 421,01$/patient. Une pratique collaborative pour des patients ayant une dyslipidémie engendre un coût raisonnable.