Transportation of bed material due to wave action /

"February 1964."

Coherent structures in open channel flows with bed load transport over an hydraulically rough bed

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Engenharia Civil – Perfil de Estruturas

Modelling woody material transport and deposition in alpine rivers

Recent flood events in Switzerland and Western Austria in 2005 were characterised by an increase in impacts and associated losses due to the transport of woody material. As a consequence, protection measures and bridges suffered considerable damages. Furthermore, cross-sectional obstructions due to woody material entrapment caused unexpected flood plain inundations resulting in severe damage to elements at risk. Until now, the transport of woody material is neither sufficiently taken into account nor systematically considered, leading to prediction inaccuracies during the procedure of hazard mapping. To close this gap, we propose a modelling approach that (1) allows the estimation of woody material recruitment from wood-covered banks and flood plains; (2) allows the evaluation of the disposition for woody material entrainment and transport to selected critical configurations along the stream and that (3) enables the delineation of hazard process patterns at these critical configurations. Results from a case study suggest the general applicability of the concept. This contribution to woody material transport analysis refines flood hazard assessments due to the consideration of woody material transport scenarios.

A Multi-Criteria GIS-Based Route Selection Tool for Hazardous Material Transport: Consideration of Environmental Consequence, Traffic Congestions and Costs

Hazardous materials are substances that, if not regulated, can pose a threat to human populations and their environmental health, safety or property when transported in commerce. About 1.5 million tons of hazardous material shipments are transported by truck in the US annually, with a steady increase of approximately 5% per year. The objective of this study was to develop a routing tool for hazardous material transport in order to facilitate reduced environmental impacts and less transportation difficulties, yet would also find paths that were still compelling for the shipping carriers as a matter of trucking cost. The study started with identification of inhalation hazard impact zones and explosion protective areas around the location of hypothetical hazardous material releases, considering different parameters (i.e., chemicals characteristics, release quantities, atmospheric condition, etc.). Results showed that depending on the quantity of release, chemical, and atmospheric stability (a function of wind speed, meteorology, sky cover, time and location of accidents, etc.) the consequence of these incidents can differ. The study was extended by selection of other evaluation criteria for further investigation because health risk as an evaluation criterion would not be the only concern in selection of routes. Transportation difficulties (i.e., road blockage and congestion) were incorporated as important factor due to their indirect impact/cost on the users of transportation networks. Trucking costs were also considered as one of the primary criteria in selection of hazardous material paths; otherwise the suggested routes would have not been convincing for the shipping companies. The last but not least criterion was proximity of public places to the routes. The approach evolved from a simple framework to a complicated and efficient GIS-based tool able to investigate transportation networks of any given study area, and capable of generating best routing options for cargos. The suggested tool uses a multi-criteria-decision-making method, which considers the priorities of the decision makers in choosing the cargo routes. Comparison of the routing options based on each criterion and also the overall suitableness of the path in regards to all the criteria (using a multi-criteria-decision-making method) showed that using similar tools as the one proposed by this study can provide decision makers insights in the area of hazardous material transport. This tool shows the probable consequences of considering each path in a very easily understandable way; in the formats of maps and tables, which makes the tradeoffs of costs and risks considerably simpler, as in some cases slightly compromising on trucking cost may drastically decrease the probable health risk and/or traffic difficulties. This will not only be rewarding to the community by making cities safer places to live, but also can be beneficial to shipping companies by allowing them to advertise as environmental friendly conveyors.

Eulerian-Lagrangian definition of coarse bed-load transport: Theory and verification with low-cost inertial measurement units

Fluvial sediment transport is controlled by hydraulics, sediment properties and arrangement, and flow history across a range of time scales. This physical complexity has led to ambiguous definition of the reference frame (Lagrangian or Eulerian) in which sediment transport is analysed. A general Eulerian-Lagrangian approach accounts for inertial characteristics of particles in a Lagrangian (particle fixed) frame, and for the hydrodynamics in an independent Eulerian frame. The necessary Eulerian-Lagrangian transformations are simplified under the assumption of an ideal Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU), rigidly attached at the centre of the mass of a sediment particle. Real, commercially available IMU sensors can provide high frequency data on accelerations and angular velocities (hence forces and energy) experienced by grains during entrainment and motion, if adequately customized. IMUs are subjected to significant error accu- mulation but they can be used for statistical parametrisation of an Eulerian-Lagrangian model, for coarse sediment particles and over the temporal scale of individual entrainment events. In this thesis an Eulerian-Lagrangian model is introduced and evaluated experimentally. Absolute inertial accelerations were recorded at a 4 Hz frequency from a spherical instrumented particle (111 mm diameter and 2383 kg/m3 density) in a series of entrainment threshold experiments on a fixed idealised bed. The grain-top inertial acceleration entrainment threshold was approximated at 44 and 51 mg for slopes 0.026 and 0.037 respectively. The saddle inertial acceleration entrainment threshold was at 32 and 25 mg for slopes 0.044 and 0.057 respectively. For the evaluation of the complete Eulerian-Lagrangian model two prototype sensors are presented: an idealised (spherical) with a diameter of 90 mm and an ellipsoidal with axes 100, 70 and 30 mm. Both are instrumented with a complete IMU, capable of sampling 3D inertial accelerations and 3D angular velocities at 50 Hz. After signal analysis, the results can be used to parametrize sediment movement but they do not contain positional information. The two sensors (spherical and ellipsoidal) were tested in a series of entrainment experiments, similar to the evaluation of the 111 mm prototype, for a slope of 0.02. The spherical sensor entrained at discharges of 24.8 ± 1.8 l/s while the same threshold for the ellipsoidal sensor was 45.2 ± 2.2 l/s. Kinetic energy calculations were used to quantify the particle-bed energy exchange under fluvial (discharge at 30 l/s) and non-fluvial conditions. All the experiments suggest that the effect of the inertial characteristics of coarse sediments on their motion is comparable to the effect hydrodynamic forces. The coupling of IMU sensors with advanced telemetric systems can lead to the tracking of Lagrangian particle trajectories, at a frequency and accuracy that will permit the testing of diffusion/dispersion models across the range of particle diameters.

Numerical modelling of the impact of climate change on the morphology of Saint-Lawrence tributaries

Cette thèse examine les impacts sur la morphologie des tributaires du fleuve Saint-Laurent des changements dans leur débit et leur niveau de base engendrés par les changements climatiques prévus pour la période 2010–2099. Les tributaires sélectionnés (rivières Batiscan, Richelieu, Saint-Maurice, Saint-François et Yamachiche) ont été choisis en raison de leurs différences de taille, de débit et de contexte morphologique. Non seulement ces tributaires subissent-ils un régime hydrologique modifié en raison des changements climatiques, mais leur niveau de base (niveau d’eau du fleuve Saint-Laurent) sera aussi affecté. Le modèle morphodynamique en une dimension (1D) SEDROUT, à l’origine développé pour des rivières graveleuses en mode d’aggradation, a été adapté pour le contexte spécifique des tributaires des basses-terres du Saint-Laurent afin de simuler des rivières sablonneuses avec un débit quotidien variable et des fluctuations du niveau d’eau à l’aval. Un module pour simuler le partage des sédiments autour d’îles a aussi été ajouté au modèle. Le modèle ainsi amélioré (SEDROUT4-M), qui a été testé à l’aide de simulations à petite échelle et avec les conditions actuelles d’écoulement et de transport de sédiments dans quatre tributaires du fleuve Saint-Laurent, peut maintenant simuler une gamme de problèmes morphodynamiques de rivières. Les changements d’élévation du lit et d’apport en sédiments au fleuve Saint-Laurent pour la période 2010–2099 ont été simulés avec SEDROUT4-M pour les rivières Batiscan, Richelieu et Saint-François pour toutes les combinaisons de sept régimes hydrologiques (conditions actuelles et celles prédites par trois modèles de climat globaux (MCG) et deux scénarios de gaz à effet de serre) et de trois scénarios de changements du niveau de base du fleuve Saint-Laurent (aucun changement, baisse graduelle, baisse abrupte). Les impacts sur l’apport de sédiments et l’élévation du lit diffèrent entre les MCG et semblent reliés au statut des cours d’eau (selon qu’ils soient en état d’aggradation, de dégradation ou d’équilibre), ce qui illustre l’importance d’examiner plusieurs rivières avec différents modèles climatiques afin d’établir des tendances dans les effets des changements climatiques. Malgré le fait que le débit journalier moyen et le débit annuel moyen demeurent près de leur valeur actuelle dans les trois scénarios de MCG, des changements importants dans les taux de transport de sédiments simulés pour chaque tributaire sont observés. Ceci est dû à l’impact important de fortes crues plus fréquentes dans un climat futur de même qu’à l’arrivée plus hâtive de la crue printanière, ce qui résulte en une variabilité accrue dans les taux de transport en charge de fond. Certaines complications avec l’approche de modélisation en 1D pour représenter la géométrie complexe des rivières Saint-Maurice et Saint-François suggèrent qu’une approche bi-dimensionnelle (2D) devrait être sérieusement considérée afin de simuler de façon plus exacte la répartition des débits aux bifurcations autour des îles. La rivière Saint-François est utilisée comme étude de cas pour le modèle 2D H2D2, qui performe bien d’un point de vue hydraulique, mais qui requiert des ajustements pour être en mesure de pleinement simuler les ajustements morphologiques des cours d’eau.

Maximum level and time to peak of dam-break waves on mobile horizontal bed

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 135, No. 11, November 1, 2009

Suspended and bed load sediment transport dynamics in two lowland UK streams—storm integrated monitoring

A great deal of work recently has focused on suspended and bedload sediment transport, driven primarily by interest in contaminant transfer. However, uncertainties regarding the role of storm events, macrophyte beds and interactions between the two phases of sediment still exist. This paper compares two study sites within the same catchment whose geology varies significantly. The differences in hydrology, suspended sediment (SS) transport and bed load transport that this causes are examined. In addition, a method to predict the mobilization of different size fractions of sediment during given flows is investigated using critical entrainment thresholds.

Hazard index maps for woody material recruitment and transport in alpine catchments

A robust and reliable risk assessment procedure for hydrologic hazards deserves particular attention to the role of transported woody material during flash floods or debris flows. At present, woody material transport phenomena are not systematically considered within the procedures for the elaboration of hazard maps. The consequence is a risk of losing prediction accuracy and of underestimating hazard impacts. Transported woody material frequently interferes with the sediment regulation capacity of open check dams and moreover, when obstruction phenomena at critical crosssections of the stream occur, inundations can be triggered. The paper presents a procedure for the determination of the relative propensity of mountain streams to the entrainment and delivery of recruited woody material on the basis of empirical indicators. The procedure provided the basis for the elaboration of a hazard index map for all torrent catchments of the Autonomous Province of Bolzano/Bozen. The plausibility of the results has been thoroughly checked by a backward oriented analysis on natural hazard events, documented since 1998 at the Department of Hydraulic Engineering of the aforementioned Alpine Province. The procedure provides hints for the consideration of the effects, induced by woody material transport, during the elaboration of hazard zone maps.

Effects of bed materials on the performance of an anaerobic sequencing batch biofilm reactor treating domestic sewage

The objective of this study was to determine the best performance of an anaerobic sequencing batch biofilm reactor (AnSBBR) based on the use of four different bed materials as support for biomass immobilization. The bed materials utilized were Polyurethane foam (PU), vegetal carbon (VC), synthetic pumice (SP), and recycled low-density polyethylene (PE). The AnSBBR. with I total volume Of 7.2 L, was operated in 8-h batch cycles over 10 months, and fed with domestic sewage with an average influent chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 358 +/- 110 mg/L. The average effluent COD values were 121 +/- 31, 208 +/- 54, 233 +/- 52, and 227 +/- 51 mg/L. for PU, VC, SP, and PE, respectively. A modified first-order kinetic model was adjusted to temporal profiles of COD during a batch cycle, and the apparent kinetic constants were 0.52 +/- 0.05, 0.37 +/- 0.05, 0.80 +/- 0.04, and 0.30 +/- 0.021h(-1) for PU, VC, SP, and PE, respectively. Specific substrate utilization rates of 1.08, 0.11, and 0.86 mg COD/mg VS day were obtained for PU, VC, and PE, respectively. Although SP yielded the highest kinetic coefficient, PU was considered the best support, since SP presented loss of chemical constituents during the reactor`s operational phase. In addition, findings oil the microbial community were associated with the reactor`s performance data. Although PE did not show a satisfactory performance, an interesting microbial diversity was found oil its surface. Based oil the morphology and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) results, PE showed the best capacity for promoting the attachment of methanogenic organisms, and is therefore a material that merits further analysis. PU was considered the Most suitable material showing the best performance in terms of efficiency of solids and COD removal. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Shear stress and sediment transport calculations for sheet flow under waves

A simple method is provided for calculating transport rates of not too fine (d(50) greater than or equal to 0.20 mm) sand under sheet flow conditions. The method consists of a Meyer-Peter-type transport formula operating on a time-varying Shields parameter, which accounts for both acceleration-asymmetry and boundary layer streaming. While velocity moment formulae, e.g.., = Constant x calibrated against U-tube measurements, fail spectacularly under some real waves (Ribberink, J.S., Dohmen-Janssen, C.M., Hanes, D.M., McLean, S.R., Vincent, C., 2000. Near-bed sand transport mechanisms under waves. Proc. 27th Int. Conf. Coastal Engineering, Sydney, ASCE, New York, pp. 3263-3276, Fig. 12), the new method predicts the real wave observations equally well. The reason that the velocity moment formulae fail under these waves is partly the presence of boundary layer streaming and partly the saw-tooth asymmetry, i.e., the front of the waves being steeper than the back. Waves with saw-tooth asymmetry may generate a net landward sediment transport even if = 0, because of the more abrupt acceleration under the steep front. More abrupt accelerations are associated with thinner boundary layers and greater pressure gradients for a given velocity magnitude. The two real wave effects are incorporated in a model of the form Q(s)(t) = Q(s)[theta(t)] rather than Q(S)(t) = Q(S)[u(infinity)(t)], i.e., by expressing the transport rate in terms of an instantaneous Shields parameter rather than in terms of the free stream velocity, and accounting for both streaming and accelerations in the 0(t) calculations. The instantaneous friction velocities u(*)(t) and subsequently theta(t) are calculated as follows. Firstly, a linear filter incorporating the grain roughness friction factor f(2.5) and a phase angle phi(tau) is applied to u(infinity)(t). This delivers u(*)(t) which is used to calculate an instantaneous grain roughness Shields parameter theta(2.5)(t). Secondly, a constant bed shear stress is added which corresponds to the streaming related bed shear stress -rho ($) over bar((u) over tilde(w) over tilde)(infinity) . The method can be applied to any u(infinity)(t) time series, but further experimental validation is recommended before application to conditions that differ strongly from the ones considered below. The method is not recommended for rippled beds or for sheet flow with typical prototype wave periods and d(50) < 0.20 turn. In such scenarios, time lags related to vertical sediment movement become important, and these are not considered by the present model. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Métodos de estimativa de descarga sólida em rios : análise comparativa

Transporte de sedimentos em bacias hidrográficas está relacionado com geomorfologia, ecologia fluvial, estabilidade das estruturas de engenharia e condições de navegação, dentre outros aspectos importantes para o planejamento e o controle de recursos hídricos. Existência de inúmeras variáveis envolvidas na mecânica de transporte de sedimentos e complexidade nas interações de processos físicos tornam difícil o estabelecimento de metodologias indiretas para estimativa de transporte de sedimentos em rios. Desta forma, não existe ainda metodologia universalmente aceita. O principal objetivo do presente trabalho é a análise comparativa de diferentes métodos empíricos disponíveis na literatura para estimativa de descargas sólidas em rios, considerando suas características específicas e resultados de aplicações às bacias dos rios Santa Joana e Santa Maria do Doce e microbacias Sossego e Santa Júlia, inseridas na porção da bacia do rio Doce localizada no Espírito Santo. Foram aplicados os métodos de estimativa indireta de descarga sólida: Einstein Modificado por Colby e Hembree (1955); Colby Simplificado (1957); Engelund & Hansen (1967); Ackers & White (1973); Yang (1973), Karim (1998) e Cheng (2002). Considerando as médias das estimativas de descarga sólida de material de leito (Qsml) relativas às campanhas realizadas em período chuvoso para a seção transversal do rio Doce, de maior porte, o método de Karim (1998), seguido pelo método de Ackers & White (1973), apresentou o maior valor, enquanto que o método de Yang (1973) apresentou o menor. Para os rios Santa Maria do Doce e Santa Joana e os córregos Santa Júlia e Sossego, verificou-se que o método de Ackers & White (1973), seguido de Karim (1998) e Yang (1973) apresentaram as maiores médias, enquanto que os métodos de Cheng (2002) e Engelund & Hansen (1967) apresentaram as menores. O método Simplificado de Colby apresentou as maiores estimativas de descargas sólidas totais (Qst) para todas as seções transversais de todos os cursos d'água monitorados. Concluiu-se que os diferentes métodos indiretos podem resultar em grandes diferenças em estimativas de transporte de sedimento em rios e que, desta forma, resultados de aplicação destes métodos devem ser considerados com muita cautela. Os resultados mostraram a grande importância de realização de campanhas de medição sedimentométricas para avaliação do transporte de sedimentos e definição dos melhores métodos indiretos de estimativa para cursos d'água específicos.

Formation and Control of Trace Metal Emissions in Co-Firing of Biomass, Peat, and Wastes in Fluidised Bed Combustors

Environmentally harmful consequences of fossil fuel utilisation andthe landfilling of wastes have increased the interest among the energy producers to consider the use of alternative fuels like wood fuels and Refuse-Derived Fuels, RDFs. The fluidised bed technology that allows the flexible use of a variety of different fuels is commonly used at small- and medium-sized power plants ofmunicipalities and industry in Finland. Since there is only one mass-burn plantcurrently in operation in the country and no intention to build new ones, the co-firing of pre-processed wastes in fluidised bed boilers has become the most generally applied waste-to-energy concept in Finland. The recently validated EU Directive on Incineration of Wastes aims to mitigate environmentally harmful pollutants of waste incineration and co-incineration of wastes with conventional fuels. Apart from gaseous flue gas pollutants and dust, the emissions of toxic tracemetals are limited. The implementation of the Directive's restrictions in the Finnish legislation is assumed to limit the co-firing of waste fuels, due to the insufficient reduction of the regulated air pollutants in the existing flue gas cleaning devices. Trace metals emission formation and reduction in the ESP, the condensing wet scrubber, the fabric filter, and the humidification reactor were studied, experimentally, in full- and pilot-scale combustors utilising the bubbling fluidised bed technology, and, theoretically, by means of reactor model calculations. The core of the model is a thermodynamic equilibrium analysis. The experiments were carried out with wood chips, sawdust, and peat, and their refuse-derived fuel, RDF, blends. In all, ten different fuels or fuel blends were tested. Relatively high concentrations of trace metals in RDFs compared to the concentrations of these metals in wood fuels increased the trace metal concentrations in the flue gas after the boiler ten- to hundred-folds, when RDF was co-fired with sawdust in a full-scale BFB boiler. In the case of peat, lesser increase in trace metal concentrations was observed, due to the higher initial trace metal concentrations of peat compared to sawdust. Despite the high removal rate of most of the trace metals in the ESP, the Directive emission limits for trace metals were exceeded in each of the RDF co-firing tests. The dominat trace metals in fluegas after the ESP were Cu, Pb and Mn. In the condensing wet scrubber, the flue gas trace metal emissions were reduced below the Directive emission limits, whenRDF pellet was used as a co-firing fuel together with sawdust and peat. High chlorine content of the RDFs enhanced the mercuric chloride formation and hence the mercury removal in the ESP and scrubber. Mercury emissions were lower than theDirective emission limit for total Hg, 0.05 mg/Nm3, in all full-scale co-firingtests already in the flue gas after the ESP. The pilot-scale experiments with aBFB combustor equipped with a fabric filter revealed that the fabric filter alone is able to reduce the trace metal concentrations, including mercury, in the flue gas during the RDF co-firing approximately to the same level as they are during the wood chip firing. Lower trace metal emissions than the Directive limits were easily reached even with a 40% thermal share of RDF co-firing with sawdust.Enrichment of trace metals in the submicron fly ash particle fraction because of RDF co-firing was not observed in the test runs where sawdust was used as the main fuel. The combustion of RDF pellets with peat caused an enrichment of As, Cd, Co, Pb, Sb, and V in the submicron particle mode. Accumulation and release oftrace metals in the bed material was examined by means of a bed material analysis, mass balance calculations and a reactor model. Lead, zinc and copper were found to have a tendency to be accumulated in the bed material but also to have a tendency to be released from the bed material into the combustion gases, if the combustion conditions were changed. The concentration of the trace metal in the combustion gases of the bubbling fluidised bed boiler was found to be a summary of trace metal fluxes from three main sources. They were (1) the trace metal flux from the burning fuel particle (2) the trace metal flux from the ash in the bed, and (3) the trace metal flux from the active alkali metal layer on the sand (and ash) particles in the bed. The amount of chlorine in the system, the combustion temperature, the fuel ash composition and the saturation state of the bed material in regard to trace metals were discovered to be key factors affecting therelease process. During the co-firing of waste fuels with variable amounts of e.g. ash and chlorine, it is extremely important to consider the possible ongoingaccumulation and/or release of the trace metals in the bed, when determining the flue gas trace metal emissions. If the state of the combustion process in regard to trace metals accumulation and/or release in the bed material is not known,it may happen that emissions from the bed material rather than the combustion of the fuel in question are measured and reported.

Artificially Intelligent and Adaptive Methods for Prediction and Analysis of Superheater Fireside Corrosion in Fluidized Bed Boilers

Superheater corrosion causes vast annual losses for the power companies. With a reliable corrosion prediction method, the plants can be designed accordingly, and knowledge of fuel selection and determination of process conditions may be utilized to minimize superheater corrosion. Growing interest to use recycled fuels creates additional demands for the prediction of corrosion potential. Models depending on corrosion theories will fail, if relations between the inputs and the output are poorly known. A prediction model based on fuzzy logic and an artificial neural network is able to improve its performance as the amount of data increases. The corrosion rate of a superheater material can most reliably be detected with a test done in a test combustor or in a commercial boiler. The steel samples can be located in a special, temperature-controlled probe, and exposed to the corrosive environment for a desired time. These tests give information about the average corrosion potential in that environment. Samples may also be cut from superheaters during shutdowns. The analysis ofsamples taken from probes or superheaters after exposure to corrosive environment is a demanding task: if the corrosive contaminants can be reliably analyzed, the corrosion chemistry can be determined, and an estimate of the material lifetime can be given. In cases where the reason for corrosion is not clear, the determination of the corrosion chemistry and the lifetime estimation is more demanding. In order to provide a laboratory tool for the analysis and prediction, a newapproach was chosen. During this study, the following tools were generated: · Amodel for the prediction of superheater fireside corrosion, based on fuzzy logic and an artificial neural network, build upon a corrosion database developed offuel and bed material analyses, and measured corrosion data. The developed model predicts superheater corrosion with high accuracy at the early stages of a project. · An adaptive corrosion analysis tool based on image analysis, constructedas an expert system. This system utilizes implementation of user-defined algorithms, which allows the development of an artificially intelligent system for thetask. According to the results of the analyses, several new rules were developed for the determination of the degree and type of corrosion. By combining these two tools, a user-friendly expert system for the prediction and analyses of superheater fireside corrosion was developed. This tool may also be used for the minimization of corrosion risks by the design of fluidized bed boilers.

Modeling of temperature regimes in a furnace of bubbling fluidized bed boiler

The work is mainly focused on the technology of bubbling fluidized bed combustion. Heat transfer and hydrodynamics of the process were examined in the work in detail. Special emphasis was placed on the process of heat exchange in a freeboard zone of bubbling fluidized bed boiler. Operating mode of bubbling fluidized bed boiler depends on many parameters. To assess the influence of some parameters on a temperature regime inside the furnace a simplified method of zonal modeling was used in the work. Thus, effects of bed material fineness, excess air ratio and changes in boiler load were studied. Besides the technology of combustion in bubbling fluidized bed, other common technologies of solid fuels combustion were reviewed. In addition, brief survey of most widely used types of solid fuel was performed in the work.