Costs and benefits to European shipping of ballast-water and hull-fouling treatment: Impacts of native and non-indigenous species

Maritime transport and shipping are impacted negatively by biofouling, which can result in increased fuel consumption. Thus, costs for fouling reduction can be considered an investment to reduce fuel consumption. Anti-fouling measures also reduce the rate of introduction of non-indigenous species (NIS). Further mitigation measures to reduce the transport of NIS within ballast water and sediments impose additional costs. The estimated operational cost of NIS mitigation measures may represent between 1.6% and 4% of the annual operational cost for a ship operating on European seas, with the higher proportional costs in small ships. However, fouling by NIS may affect fuel consumption more than fouling by native species due to differences in species’ life-history traits and their resistance to antifouling coatings and pollution. Therefore, it is possible that the cost of NIS mitigation measures could be smaller than the cost from higher fuel consumption arising from fouling by NIS.

Ballast water: a review of the impact on the world public health

Since the nineteenth century ships have been using ballast water (BW) for safety, stability, propulsion and maneuverability, as well as to redress loss of fuel weight and water consumption, and to maintain structural stress at acceptable levels. Ballast water has been spreading many non-native species around the globe, but little is known about the extent and potential significance of ship-mediated transfer of microorganisms. The global movements of ballast water by ships create a long-distance dispersal mechanism for human pathogens that may be important in the worldwide distribution of microorganisms, as well as for the epidemiology of waterborne diseases. Only a few studies have been carried out on this subject, most of them involving ballast water containing crustacean larvae and phytoplankton. Specialized microbiological studies on these waters are necessary to avoid a repeat of what happened in 1991, when epidemic cholera was reported in Peru and rapidly spread through Latin America and Mexico. In July of 1992, Vibrio cholerae was found in the USA and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) determined that it came from ballast water of ships whose last port of call was in South America. In Brazil, just a few studies about the subject have been performed. An exploratory study by the Brazilian National Health Surveillance Agency (Agencia Nacional de Vigilancia Sanitaria - ANVISA) found in ballast water different microorganisms, such as fecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium perfringens, coliphages, Vibrio cholerae O1 and Vibrio cholerae non-O1. Until now, Brazil has been focusing only on organisms transported to its territory from other countries by ballast water, to avoid their establishment and dissemination in Brazilian areas. Studies that can assess the probability that water ballast carries pathogenic microorganisms are extremely important, as is the examination of ships that arrive in the country. Treatment of the human infections caused by BW exists but none is completely safe and efficient.

Ballast Water Management Act of 2005 : report of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation on S. 363.

"November 16, 2005."

Diffusive and ship-mediated spread of dinoflagellates in the Baltic Sea with Prorocentrum minimum as a special case

In this thesis the role played by expansive and introduced species in the phytoplankton ecology of the Baltic Sea was investigated. The aims were threefold. First, the studies investigated the resting stages of dinoflagellates, which were transported into the Baltic Sea via shipping and were able to germinate under the ambient, nutrient-rich, brackish water conditions. The studies also estimated which factors favoured the occurrence and spread of P. minimum in the Baltic Sea and discussed the identification of this morphologically variable species. In addition, the classification of phytoplankton species recently observed in the Baltic Sea was discussed. Incubation of sediments from four Finnish ports and 10 ships ballast tanks revealed that the sediments act as sources of living dinoflagellates and other phytoplankton. Dinoflagellates germinated from all ports detected and from 90% of ballast tanks. The concentrations of cells germinating from ballast tank sediments were mostly low compared with the acceptable cell concentrations set by the International Maritime Organization s (IMO s) International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water and Sediments. However, the IMO allows such high concentrations of small cells in the discharged ballast water that the total number of cells in large ballast water tanks can be very high. Prorocentrum minimum occurred in the Baltic Sea annually but with no obvious trend in the 10-year timespan from 1993 to 2002. The species occurred under wide ranges of temperatures and salinities and the abundance of the species was positively related especially to the presence of organic nitrogen and phosphorus. This indicated that the species was favoured by increased organic nutrient loading and runoff from land and rivers. The cell shape of P. minimum varied from triangular to oval-round, but morphological fine details indicated that only one morphospecies was present. P. minimum also is, according to present knowledge, the only potentially harmful phytoplankton species that has recently expanded widely into new areas of the Baltic Sea.

An Integrated Assessment of the Introduction of Lionfish (Pterois volitans/miles complex) to the Western Atlantic Ocean.

Lionfish (Pterois volitans/miles complex) are venomous coral reef fishes from the Indian and western Pacific oceans that are now found in the western Atlantic Ocean. Adult lionfish have been observed from Miami, Florida to Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and juvenile lionfish have been observed off North Carolina, New York, and Bermuda. The large number of adults observed and the occurrence of juveniles indicate that lionfish are established and reproducing along the southeast United States coast. Introductions of marine species occur in many ways. Ballast water discharge, a very common method of introduction for marine invertebrates, is responsible for many freshwater fish introductions. In contrast, most marine fish introductions result from intentional stocking for fishery purposes. Lionfish, however, likely were introduced via unintentional or intentional aquarium releases, and the introduction of lionfish into United States waters should lead to an assessment of the threat posed by the aquarium trade as a vector for fish introductions. Currently, no management actions are being taken to limit the effect of lionfish on the southeast United States continental shelf ecosystem. Further, only limited funds have been made available for research. Nevertheless, the extent of the introduction has been documented and a forecast of the maximum potential spread of lionfish is being developed. Under a scenario of no management actions and limited research, three predictions are made: ● With no action, the lionfish population will continue to grow along the southeast United States shelf. ● Effects on the marine ecosystem of the southeast United States will become more noticeable as the lionfish population grows. ● There will be incidents of lionfish envenomations of divers and/or fishers along the east coast of the United States. Removing lionfish from the southeast United States continental shelf ecosystem would be expensive and likely impossible. A bounty could be established that would encourage the removal of fish and provide specimens for research. However, the bounty would need to be lower than the price of fish in the aquarium trade (~$25-$50 each) to ensure that captured specimens were from the wild. Such a low bounty may not provide enough incentive for capturing lionfish in the wild. Further, such action would only increase the interaction between the public and lionfish, increasing the risk of lionfish envenomations. As the introduction of lionfish is very likely irreversible, future actions should focus on five areas. 1) The population of lionfish should be tracked. 2) Research should be conducted so that scientists can make better predictions regarding the status of the invasion and the effects on native species, ecosystem function, and ecosystem services. 3) Outreach and education efforts must be increased, both specifically toward lionfish and more generally toward the aquarium trade as a method of fish introductions. 4) Additional regulation should be considered to reduce the frequency of marine fish introduction into U.S. waters. However, the issue is more complicated than simply limiting the import of non-native species, and these complexities need to be considered simultaneously. 5) Health care providers along the east coast of the United States need to be notified that a venomous fish is now resident along the southeast United States. The introduction and spread of lionfish illustrates the difficulty inherent in managing introduced species in marine systems. Introduced species often spread via natural mechanisms after the initial introduction. Efforts to control the introduction of marine fish will fail if managers do not consider the natural dispersal of a species following an introduction. Thus, management strategies limiting marine fish introductions need to be applied over the scale of natural ecological dispersal to be effective, pointing to the need for a regional management approach defined by natural processes not by political boundaries. The introduction and success of lionfish along the east coast should change the long-held perception that marine fish invasions are a minimal threat to marine ecosystems. Research is needed to determine the effects of specific invasive fish species in specific ecosystems. More broadly, a cohesive plan is needed to manage, mitigate and minimize the effects of marine invasive fish species on ecosystems that are already compromised by other human activities. Presently, the magnitude of marine fish introductions as a stressor on marine ecosystems cannot be quantified, but can no longer be dismissed as negligible. (PDF contains 31 pages)

An integrated assessment of the continued spread and potential impacts of the colonial ascidian, Didemnum sp. A, in U.S. waters

Didemnum sp. A is a colonial ascidian or “sea squirt” of unknown geographic origin. Colonies of Didemnum sp. A were first documented in U.S. waters in 1993 at Damariscotta River, Maine and San Francisco Bay, California. An alarming number of colonies have since been found at several locations in New England and along the West Coast of the contiguous continental United States. Originally believed to be restricted to artificial structures in nearshore habitats, such as ports and marinas, colonies of Didemnum sp. A have also been discovered on a gravel-pavement habitat on Georges Bank at depths of 40-65m. The wide distribution of Didemnum sp. A, the presence of colonies on an important offshore fishing ground, and the negative economic impacts that other species of noninidigenous ascidians have had on aquaculture operations have raised concerns about the potential impacts of Didemnum sp. A. We reviewed the available information on the biology and ecology of Didemnum sp. A and potentially closely related species to examine the environmental and socioeconomic factors that may have influenced the introduction, establishment and spread of Didemnum sp. A in U.S. waters, the potential impacts of this colonial ascidian on other organisms, aquaculture, and marine fisheries, and the possibility that it will spread to other U.S. waters. In addition, we present and discuss potential management objectives for minimizing the impacts and spread of Didemnum sp. A. Concern over the potential for Didemnum sp. A to become invasive stems from ecological traits that it shares with other invasive species, including the ability to overgrow benthic organisms, high reproductive and population growth rates, ability to spread by colony fragmentation, tolerance to a wide range of environmental conditions, apparent scarcity of predators, and the ability to survive in human dominated habitats. At relatively small spatial scales, species of Didemnum and other nonindigenous ascidians have been shown to alter the abundance and composition of benthic assemblages. In addition, the Canadian aquaculture industry has reported that heavy infestations of nonindigenous ascidians result in increased handling and processing costs. Offshore fisheries may also suffer where high densities of Didemnum sp. A may alter the access of commercially important fish species to critical spawning grounds, prey items, and refugia. Because colonial ascidian larvae remain viable for only 12–24hrs, the introduction and spread of Didemnum sp. A across large distances is thought to be predominantly human mediated; hull fouling, aquaculture, and ballast water. Recent studies suggest that colony growth rates decline when temperatures exceed 21 ºC for 7 consecutive days. Similarly, water temperatures above 8 to 10 ºC are necessary for colony growth; however, colonies can survive extended periods of time below this temperature threshold as an unidentified overwintering form. A qualitative analysis of monthly mean nearshore water temperatures suggest that new colonies of Didemnum will continue to be found in the Northeast U.S., California Current, and Gulf of Alaska LMEs. In contrast, water temperatures become less favorable for colony establishment in subarctic, subtropical, and tropical areas to the north and south of Didemnum’s current distribution in cool temperate habitats. We recommend that the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force serve as the central management authority to coordinate State and Federal management activities. Five objectives for a Didemnum sp. A management and control program focusing on preventing the spread of Didemnum sp. A to new areas and limiting the impacts of existing populations are discussed. Given the difficulty of eradicating large populations of Didemnum sp. A, developing strategies for limiting the access of Didemnum sp. A to transport vectors and locating newly established colonies are emphasized. (PDF contains 70 pages)

Field Guide to Nonindigenous Marine Fishes of Florida

The purpose of this field guide is to provide information on nonindigenous (i.e., non-native) fishes that have been observed in Florida’s marine waters. Introductions of non-native marine fishes into Florida’s waters could be intentional or unintentional, and are likely from a variety of sources, including aquarium releases, escape from aquaculture, loss due to extreme weather events (e.g., flooding from hurricanes), and possibly transfer with ballast water or hull-fouling. Presently the lionfishes (Pterois volitans and P. miles) are the only non-native marine fish species known to be established along the coast of Florida. All other marine fishes in this guide (except the euryhaline species, see below) have infrequent occurrences, occur singly or in small groups, and have not yet become self-sustaining populations. Aquarium releases are one of the major pathways whereby nonindigenous fishes gain access to new environments (Ruiz et al. 1997; Fuller et al. 1999). Most of the nonindigenous marine fishes found in Florida’s waters are thought to be aquarium fishes that either were illegally released into the ocean or escaped captivity (e.g., during severe storm/flooding events). Indeed, south Florida is a hotspot for nonindigenous marine aquarium fishes (Semmens et al. 2004). Increased public awareness of the problems caused by released or escaped aquarium fishes may aid in stemming the frequency of releases. For example, HabitattitudeTM (www.habitattitude.net) is a national public awareness and partnership campaign that encourages aquarists and water gardeners to prevent the release of unwanted aquarium plants, fish and other animals. It prompts hobbyists to adopt alternative actions when dealing with these aquatic plants and animals. (PDF file contains 133 pages.)

Impacts of Climate Change on European Marine Ecosystems: Observations, Expectations and Indicators

The Northern Hemisphere has been warmer since 1980 than at any other time during the last 2000 years. The observed increase in temperature has been generally higher in northern than in southern European seas, and higher in enclosed than in open seas. Although European marine ecosystems are influenced by many other factors, such as nutrient enrichment and overfishing, every region has shown at least some changes that were most likely attributable to recent climate change. It is expected that within open systems there will generally be (further) northward movement of species, leading to a switch from polar to more temperate species in the northern seas such as the Arctic, Barents Sea and the Nordic Seas, and subtropical species moving northward to temperate regions such as the Iberian upwelling margin. For seas that are highly influenced by river runoff, such as the Baltic Sea, an increase in freshwater due to enhanced rainfall will lead to a shift from marine to more brackish and even freshwater species. If semi-enclosed systems such as the Mediterranean and the Black Sea lose their endemic species, the associated niches will probably be filled by species originating from adjacent waters and, possibly, with species transported from one region to another via ballast water and the Suez Canal. A better understanding of potential climate change impacts (scenarios) at both regional and local levels, the development of improved methods to quantify the uncertainty of climate change projections, the construction of usable climate change indicators, and an improvement of the interface between science and policy formulation in terms of risk assessment will be essential to formulate and inform better adaptive strategies to address the inevitable consequences of climate change.

The invasion of five alien species in the Delta do Parnaiba Environmental Protection Area, Northeastern Brazil

Marine biological invasions have been regarded as one of the major causes of native biodiversity loss, with shipping and aquaculture being the leading contributors for the introductions of alien species in aquatic ecosystems. In the present study, five aquatic alien species (one mollusk, three crustaceans and one fish species) were detected during dives, shore searches and from the fisheries on the coast of the Delta do Parnaiba Environmental Protection Area, in the States of Piaui and Maranhao, Northeastern Brazil. The species were the bicolor purse-oyster Isognomon bicolor, the whiteleg shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, the giant river prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii, the Indo-Pacific swimming crab Charybdis hellerii and, the muzzled blenny Omobranchus punctatus. Ballast water (I. bicolor, C. hellerii, and O. punctatus) and aquaculture activities (L. vannamei and M. rosenbergii) in adjacent areas are the most likely vectors of introduction. All exotic species found have potential impact risks to the environment because they are able to compete against native species for resources (food and habitat). Isognomon bicolor share the same habitat and food items with the native bivalve species of mussels and barnacles. Litopenaeus vannamei share the same habitat and food items with the native penaeids such as the pinkspot shrimp Farfantepenaeus brasiliensis, the Southern brown shrimp Farfantepenaeus subtilis, and the Southern white shrimp Litopenaeus schmitti, and in the past few years L. vannamei was responsible for a viral epidemics in the cultivation tanks that could be transmitted to native penaeid shrimps. Charybdis hellerii is also able to cause impacts on the local fisheries as the species can decrease the populations of native portunid crabs which are commercialized in the studied region. Macrobrachium rosenbergii may be sharing natural resources with the Amazon River prawn Macrobrachium amazonicum. Omobranchus punctatus shares habit with the native redlip blenny Ophioblennius atlanticus and other fishes, such as the frillfin goby Bathigobius soporator. Some immediate remedial measures to prevent further introductions from ballast water and shrimp farm ponds should be: (i) to prevent the release of ballast water by ship/vessels in the region; (ii) to reroute all effluent waters from shrimp rearing facilities through an underground or above-ground dry well; (iii) to install adequate sand and gravel filter which will allow passage of water but not livestock; (iv) outdoor shrimp pounds located on floodable land should be diked, and; (v) to promote environmental awareness of those directly involved with ballast water (crews of ship/vessels) and shrimp farms in the region. Rev. Biol. Trop. 58 (3): 909-923. Epub 2010 September 01.

Ampliação da distribuição geográfica de três caranguejos majóideos (Crustacea, Decapoda, Brachyura) na costa do Estado de São Paulo, Brasil

This study reports range extensions of three species of crabs to the northern coast of the state of São Paulo. The species obtained were Inachoides forceps, Microphrys antillensis and Mithraculus sculptus. Recent new records of marine species in Brazilian waters illustrate the importance of continuous investigations on the biodiversity of subtidal rocky bottoms.

Distribuição de bivalve invasor Limnoperna fortunei (Dunker, 1857) na Bacia do Rio Prata após vinte anos (1991-2014) de sua introdução na America do Sul

Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia) - IBB

Dispersal in free-living, marine, benthic nematodes : passive or active processes?

Meiofauna, and especially marine nematodes are common in sediments around the world. Despite very wide ranging distributions in many nematode species, little is presently known about their dispersal mechanisms shaping these patterns. Rafting, and perhaps ballast water transport has been suggested as viable means for nematode long-range transport. On a much smaller scale other processes have been suggested for their dispersal. They generally include some form of passive suspension into the water column and later on a passive, haphazard settling back towards the bottom. Small-scale phenomena in nematode dispersal were studied by conducting a series of studies at Askö field station, Trosa Archipelago, Baltic proper. Studied aspects were one case of macrofaunal influence on nematode dispersal rate, using an amphipod, Monoporeia affinis as disturbing agent, and three different studies on mechanisms related to settling. The experiments were conducted both in laboratory and field settings. The amphipod Monoporeia affinis did not exert any influence on the dispersal rate in the nematodes. The nematode dispersal was only an effect of time, in the aspect that the more time that past, the more nematodes dispersed from their place of origin. The settling experiments revealed that nematodes do have an active component in their settling behaviour, as they were able to exert influence on the spot where they were to settle. They were able to choose settling spot in response to the food quality of the sediment. It also became evident that contrary to common belief, nematodes are able to extend their presence in the water column far beyond the times that would be predicted considering settling velocities and hydrodynamic conditions alone.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and survival, impairment of three phytoplankton species in a laboratory experiment

Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is widely used to disinfect seawater in power plant cooling systems in order to reduce biofouling, and in ballast water treatment systems to prevent transport of exotic marine species. While the toxicity of NaOCl is expected to increase by ongoing ocean acidification, and many experimental studies have shown how algal calcification, photosynthesis and growth respond to ocean acidification, no studies have investigated the relationship between NaOCl toxicity and increased CO2. Therefore, we investigated whether the impacts of NaOCl on survival, chlorophyll a (Chl-a), and effective quantum yield in three marine phytoplankton belonging to different taxonomic classes are increased under high CO2 levels. Our results show that all biological parameters of the three species decreased under increasing NaOCl concentration, but increasing CO2 concentration alone (from 450 to 715 µatm) had no effect on any of these parameters in the organisms. However, due to the synergistic effects between NaOCl and CO2, the survival and Chl-a content in two of the species, Thalassiosira eccentrica and Heterosigma akashiwo, were significantly reduced under high CO2 when NaOCl was also elevated. The results show that combined exposure to high CO2 and NaOCl results in increasing toxicity of NaOCl in some marine phytoplankton. Consequently, greater caution with use of NaOCl will be required, as its use is widespread in coastal waters.

Determinación de los parámetros de diseño a aplicar al proyecto de grandes yates a motor, en base a nuevos requerimientos de eficiencia energética y protección del medioambiente marino

Durante los últimos años, la construcción de grandes yates ha evolucionado hacia conceptos y diseños más complejos dónde se ha priorizado en muchas ocasiones la estética arquitectónica y exigencias de confort de los armadores y operadores dejando en segundo plano aspectos clave de seguridad. Diferentes Organismos Internacionales y las Sociedades de Clasificación han venido adaptando sus requisitos a la problemática específica de este tipo de buques, tratando de compatibilizar tendencias de diseño con exigencias de resistencia, integridad estructural, estanqueidad y seguridad entre otras. En la actualidad, la construcción de grandes yates con esloras incluso por encima de los 100 metros, el aumento del número de pasajeros por encima del límite tradicional de 12, las nuevas tendencias de ahorro energético y protección medioambiental que se están implantando en la industria en general y marítima en particular, plantean una serie de desafíos tanto a los diseñadores como a las Sociedades de Clasificación que deben avanzar en sus reglamentaciones para cubrir estos y otros aspectos. Son precisamente estos aspectos medioambientales, tradicionalmente relegados en la industria de grandes yates los que están ocupando en la actualidad un primer plano en los desarrollos de normativa de diferentes Organismos Internacionales y Nacionales. El impacto que estas nuevas normativas van a tener sobre el diseño de grandes yates a motor centra el desarrollo de esta Tesis. Hasta donde ha podido conocer el doctorando, esta es la primera vez que en una Tesis Doctoral se abordan los principales mecanismos que regulan el diseño y la construcción de grandes yates a motor, se estudian y analizan las regulaciones internacionales en materia de protección medioambiental y de eficiencia energética aplicables a los yates, se seleccionan y describen un conjunto de tecnologías maduras de carácter medioambiental, susceptibles de ser empleadas en yates y se determina los parámetros y aspectos del diseño a aplicar al proyecto de grandes yates a motor como resultado de la aplicación de estas tecnologías, analizados bajo la perspectiva de la Sociedad de Clasificación y de los Organismos Internacionales. La Tesis comienza con un análisis de la industria de construcción de grandes yates, la flota existente de grandes yates, la cartera actual de pedidos y la evolución esperada del mercado. Aquí se pone de manifiesto que a pesar de la crisis económica global de los últimos años, este mercado goza relativamente de buena salud y las previsiones son favorables, particularmente para el sector en Europa. A continuación se aborda el estado del arte del diseño de yate grande, sus peculiaridades, particularmente estructurales y de armamento, que le diferencian de otros tipos de buques y las tendencias en su diseño. Se pone de manifiesto cómo el proyecto de estos yates ha evolucionado hacia yates de gran tamaño y complejidad técnica, debido a la demanda y necesidades actuales y cómo ha influido en aspectos como la disposición estructural. Seguidamente se describen los principales mecanismos que regulan el diseño y construcción de grandes yates, particularmente el Código de Grandes Yates Comerciales de la Maritime & Coastguard Agency del Reino Unido, y las Reglas y Reglamentos de la Sociedad de Clasificación Lloyd’s Register para la Clasificación de yates; por ser ambas organizaciones las que lideran el Registro y la Clasificación respectivamente de este tipo de buques, objeto del estudio. El doctorando ejerce su actividad profesional como inspector de Lloyd’s Register en una oficina técnica de apoyo y evaluación de diseño, siendo especialista en grandes yates, lo que ha permitido exponer de primera mano el punto de vista de la Sociedad de Clasificación. En el siguiente Capítulo se describen las principales reglamentaciones internacionales de carácter medioambiental que afectan al diseño, construcción y operación de los yates, algunas de las cuales, como es el caso del Convenio Internacional para el Control y la Gestión del Agua de Lastre y Sedimentos de los buques (BWM 2004) aún no ha entrado en vigor a la fecha de terminación de esta Tesis. Seguidamente se realiza una selección de tecnologías desde el punto de vista de protección medioambiental y ahorro energético y su aplicación al diseño y construcción de grandes yates. Algunas de estas tecnologías son maduras y ya habían sido utilizadas con éxito en otros tipos de buques, pero su aplicación a los yates entraña ciertos desafíos que se describen en este Capítulo. A continuación se determinan y analizan los principales parámetros de diseño de los yates grandes a motor como consecuencia de las tecnologías estudiadas y se indican una serie de aspectos de diseño bajo la perspectiva de la Sociedad de Clasificación y de los Organismos Marítimos Internacionales. Finalmente se llega a una serie de conclusiones y se identifican futuras líneas de investigación en relación a las tecnologías descritas en este trabajo. ABSTRACT In recent years, the building of large yachts has evolved into more complex concepts and designs where often prioritized architectural aesthetics and comfort requirements of owners and operators leaving in the background key security aspects. Several international organizations and classification societies have been adapting their requirements to the specific problems of this type of vessel, trying to reconcile demands design trends with resistance, structural integrity, watertightness and safety among others. At present, the building of large yachts with lengths even above 100 meters, the increase in passenger numbers over the traditional limit of 12, new trends of energy saving and environmental protection are being implemented in the marine industry in particular, they pose a number of challenges to both designers and classification societies that should update and improve their regulations to cover these and other aspects. It is precisely these environmental issues, traditionally relegated to the large yacht industry, which are currently occupying center stage in the development of rules of different international and national bodies. The impact that these new standards will have on the design of large motor yachts focuses the development of this thesis. As far as it is known, this is the first time in a doctoral thesis the main mechanisms regulating the design and construction of large motor yachts are addressed, the international regulations on environmental protection and energy efficiency requirements for yachts are studied and analyzed, a set of mature environmental technologies, capable of being applied to yachts are selected and described, the parameters and design aspects to be applied to large yacht projects as a result of the application of these technologies are determined and analyzed from the perspective of the Classification Society and international organizations. The thesis begins with an analysis of the shipbuilding industry of large yachts, the existing fleet of large yachts, the current backlog and the expected market developments. Here it becomes clear that despite the global economic crisis of recent years, this market enjoys relatively good health and prospects are favorable, particularly for the sector in Europe. Then the state of the art of large yacht design, its peculiarities, particularly structural and outfitting, that differentiate it from other types of ships and trends in design is discussed. It shows how the project of these yachts has evolved to large yachts and technical complexity, due to the demand and needs and how it has influenced the structural arrangement aspects. Then the main mechanisms regulating the design and construction of large yachts, particularly the Large Commercial Yacht Code developed by the Maritime & Coastguard Agency (UK) and the Lloyd’s Register Rules & Regulations for the Classification of Special Service Craft including yachts are described; the two organizations to be leading the registration and classification respectively of such vessels under study. The doctoral student practices his profession as a senior specialist to Lloyd’s Register in a technical support office, dealing with the design assessment of large yachts, which allowed exposing firsthand view of the Classification Society. In the next chapter describes the main international environmental regulations, affecting the design, construction and operation of yachts, some of which, such as the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM 2004) has not yet entered into force at the date of completion of this thesis. Following is a selection of technologies from the point of view of environmental protection and energy saving and its application to design and construction of large yachts. Some of these technologies are mature and have already been used successfully in other ship types, but their application to yachts entails certain challenges that are described in this chapter. Then identifies and analyzes the main design parameters of large motor yachts as a result of the technologies studied and a number of design aspects are given from the perspective of Classification Society and international maritime organizations. Finally, a number of conclusions are exposed, and future research is identified in relation to the technologies described in this Thesis.

Study of feeding competition between invasion ctenophore (M. leidyi) and anchovy (C. engrauliformis) in the Southern Caspian Sea (Mazandran Coast)

Mnemiopsis leidyi one species of phylum Ctenophora, is a native species in America. It has most likely moved across the Atlantic in the ballast water of cargo ships to the Black sea in 1982, and then to the Caspian Sea thought the Volga-Don Channel, in Nov 1999. The population of M. leidyi rows rapidly and by end of 2000, the entire sea was teeming with them. This survey was arranged In order to study the relationship between the invasion of M. leidyi and sharp decline in main stocks pelagic fish such as Kilka. Dietary analysis was conducted on Anchovy Killka (Clupeonella engrauliformis) and M. leidyi from August 2001 to October 2002 in two stations, located at the costal water near Babolsar (52.38° E ,36.42° N ) and Noshahar (51.33° E,36.39° N) in the Caspian Sea province of Mazandaran, Iran. M. leidyi was caught by plankton net, at three vertical strata of both station at surface 5 in, 10m, and 15 m the Kilka was caught by fisheries boat at Babolasar fishery harbour. Samples of M. leidyi were not fixed in its common fixative, we used 96% Ethanol In order to study of M. leidyi digestion system some alive samples, directly, were studied by the fluorescence microscope which was connected to a computer prepared specially for this process. In many cases, the light was directly reflected on the sample and microscopic image was prepared in dark background. We found that there were some common organisms in diet of both species. The Schoener index analysis reflected these similarities, as values more than critical level of overlap (>89 in Babolsar samples and >84 in Noshahar samples) were found. Results from this study suggests that M. leidyi and Anchovy have a similar feeding niche and computation between them is one of the reasons to decline in anchovy stocks. Economical effects of M. leidyi s invasion in research area were studied by data on kilka caught before and after introducing M. leidyi.