High prevalence of HTLV-1 and 2 viruses in pregnant women in São Luis, state of Maranhão, Brazil

INTRODUCTION: Human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is endemic in the Caribbean, Japan, South America and regions of Africa. HTLV-2 is present in Native American populations and associated with IV drug use in Europe and North America. In Brazil, it is estimated that 1.5 million people are infected with HTLV-1/2. The study objective was to determine HTLV-1/2 prevalence in pregnant women in the prenatal care from three public services in São Luis, State of Maranhão, Brazil, and to counsel seropositive women to reduce viral transmission. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted from February to December 2008; women with age of 18 to 45 years, with low risk for sexually transmitted disease (STD) were invited to participate. Blood samples were collected in filter paper, and HTLV-1/2 immunoenzymatic test (ELISA) was performed as a screening test. Women with reactive results were submitted to peripheral venous blood collection for ELISA repetition, followed by Western blot (WB) and real-time PCR to confirm and discriminate the infection between virus types 1 and 2. RESULTS: Of the 2,044 women tested, seven (0.3%) were ELISA reactive and confirmed positive (four were HTLV-1, and three were HTLV-2). All positive women were oriented not to breastfeed their newborns. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that the virus is present in high prevalence in that population. Further studies covering other segments of the population are necessary to better characterize the presence of HTLV-1/2 in Maranhão and to elicit measures to prevent its spread.

Vitamin D receptor alleles and bone mineral density in a normal premenopausal Brazilian female population

Studies on the association between vitamin D receptor (VDR) polymorphism and bone mineral density (BMD) in different populations have produced conflicting results probably due to ethnic differences in the populations studied. The Brazilian population is characterized by a very broad genetic background and a high degree of miscegenation. Of an initial group of 164, we studied 127 women from the city of São Paulo, aged 20 to 47 years (median, 31 years), with normal menses, a normal diet and no history of diseases or use of any medication that could alter BMD. VDR genotype was assessed by PCR amplification followed by BsmI digestion of DNA isolated from peripheral leukocytes. BMD was measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (Lunar DPX) at the lumbar site (L2-L4) and femoral neck. Most of the women (77.6%) were considered to be of predominantly European ancestry (20.6% of them reported also native American ancestry), 12.8% were of African-Brazilian ancestry and 9.6% of Asian ancestry, 41.0% (52) were classified as bb, 48.8% (62) as Bb and 10.2% (13) as BB. The BB, Bb and bb groups did not differ in age, height, weight, body mass index or age at menarche. Lumbar spine BMD was significantly higher in the bb group (1.22 ± 0.16 g/cm²) than in the BB group (1.08 ± 0.14; P<0.05), and the Bb group presented an intermediate value (1.17 ± 0.15). Femoral neck BMD was higher in the bb group (0.99 ± 0.11 g/cm²) compared to Bb (0.93 ± 0.12) and BB (0.90 ± 0.09) (P<0.05). These data indicate that there is a significant correlation between the VDR BsmI genotype and BMD in healthy Brazilian premenopausal females.

Prevalence of the A1555G (12S rRNA) and tRNA Ser(UCN) mitochondrial mutations in hearing-impaired Brazilian patients

Mitochondrial mutations are responsible for at least 1% of the cases of hereditary deafness, but the contribution of each mutation has not yet been defined in African-derived or native American genetic backgrounds. A total of 203 unselected hearing-impaired patients were screened for the presence of the mitochondrial mutation A1555G in the 12S rRNA gene and mutations in the tRNA Ser(UCN) gene in order to assess their frequency in the ethnically admixed Brazilian population. We found four individuals with A1555G mutation (2%), which is a frequency similar to those reported for European-derived populations in unselected samples. On the other hand, complete sequencing of the tRNA Ser(UCN) did not reveal reported pathogenic substitutions, namely A7445G, 7472insC, T7510C, or T7511C. Instead, other rare substitutions were found such as T1291C, A7569G, and G7444A. To evaluate the significance of these findings, 110 "European-Brazilians" and 190 "African-Brazilians" unrelated hearing controls were screened. The T1291C, A7569G and G7444A substitutions were each found in about 1% (2/190) of individuals of African ancestry, suggesting that they are probably polymorphic. Our results indicate that screening for the A1555G mutation is recommended among all Brazilian deaf patients, while testing for mutations in the tRNA Ser(UCN) gene should be considered only when other frequent deafness-causing mutations have been excluded or in the presence of a maternal transmission pattern.

Lutzomyia longipalpis and the eco-epidemiology of American visceral leishmaniasis, with particular reference to Brazil: a review

An historical review is given of American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL), with particular reference to the eco-epidemiology of the disease in Brazil. Following the first records of AVL in this country, in 1934, the sandfly Lutzomyia longipalpis (Lutz and Neiva, 1912) was incriminated as the principal vector. It is now generally accepted, however, that there exist a number of cryptic species under the name of Lu. longipalpis s.l. and that variations in the quantity of the vasodilatory peptide maxadilan in the saliva of flies from different populations of Lu. longipalpis s.l., may account for the variable clinical manifestations of AVL seen in different geographic regions. Distribution of AVL has been shown to extend throughout most of South and Central America, with the domestic dog serving as the principal reservoir of infection for man. However, while one hypothesis suggests that the causative parasite is Leishmania infantum, imported from Europe with the Portuguese and Spanish colonists, the demonstration of a high rate of benign, inapparent infection in foxes in Amazonian Brazil raised an opposing suggestion that the parasite is indigenous to the Americas. Recent reports of similar infections in native marsupials, and possibly rodents, tend to support this view, particularly as Lu. longipalpis is primordially a silvatic sandfly. Although effective control measures in foci of the disease will diminish the number of canine and human infections, the presence of such an enzootic in a variety of native animals will render the total eradication of AVL unlikely.

Interruption of vector transmission by native vectors and “the art of the possible”

In a recent article in the Reader’s Opinion, advantages and disadvantages of the certification processes of interrupted Chagas disease transmission (American trypanosomiasis) by native vector were discussed. Such concept, accepted by those authors for the case of endemic situations with introduced vectors, has been built on a long and laborious process by endemic countries and Subregional Initiatives for Prevention, Control and Treatment of Chagas, with Technical Secretariat of the Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization, to create a horizon target and goal to concentrate priorities and resource allocation and actions. With varying degrees of sucess, which are not replaceable for a certificate of good practice, has allowed during 23 years to safeguard the effective control of transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi not to hundreds of thousands, but millions of people at risk conditions, truly “the art of the possible.”

Leishmanicidal and cholinesterase inhibiting activities of phenolic compounds of Dimorphandra gardneriana and Platymiscium floribundum, native plants from Caatinga biome

In recent years, the Brazilian Health Ministry and the World Health Organization have supported research into new technologies that may contribute to the surveillance, new treatments, and control of visceral leishmaniasis within the country. In light of this, the aim of this study was to isolate compounds from plants of the Caatinga biome, and to investigate their toxicity against promastigote and amastigote forms of Leishmania infantum chagasi, the main responsible parasite for South American visceral leishmaniasis, and evaluate their ability to inhibit acetylcholinesterase enzyme (AChE). A screen assay using luciferase-expressing promastigote form and an in situ ELISA assay were used to measure the viability of promastigote and amastigote forms, respectively, after exposure to these substances. The MTT colorimetric assay was performed to determine the toxicity of these compounds in murine monocytic RAW 264.7 cell line. All compounds were tested in vitro for their anti-cholinesterase properties. A coumarin, scoparone, was isolated from Platymiscium floribundum stems, and the flavonoids rutin and quercetin were isolated from Dimorphandra gardneriana beans. These compounds were purified using silica gel column chromatography, eluted with organic solvents in mixtures of increasing polarity, and identified by spectral analysis. In the leishmanicidal assays, the compounds showed dose-dependent efficacy against the extracellular promastigote forms, with an EC50 for scoporone of 21.4µg/mL, quercetin and rutin 26 and 30.3µg/mL, respectively. The flavonoids presented comparable results to the positive control drug, amphotericin B, against the amastigote forms with EC50 for quercetin and rutin of 10.6 and 43.3µg/mL, respectively. All compounds inhibited AChE with inhibition zones varying from 0.8 to 0.6, indicating a possible mechanism of action for leishmacicidal activity.

Trends in South American weapons purchases at the beginning of the new millennium

In recent years, with some frequency it is heard that Latin America, especially South America, is witnessing the rise of an arms race. Frequent reports in the press and strong statements made by politicians in the region have fueled this fear. At the same time, scholars have also reached to this conclusion, as pointed out by Malamud and Garcia: "The famous arms race in Latin America, led by Venezuela, is no longer just talk."

The formative platform of the Congress of Panama (1810-1826): the Pan-American conjecture revisited

This article examines the formative platform of the Congress of Panama of 1826. It seeks to support the hypothesis that the nature and scope of the first test of integration in the Western Hemisphere depended critically on the platform created by Simón Bolívar and other Latin American Independence heroes from the Declaration of Independence of Venezuela in 1810 until the last bilateral agreement of 1826. In that respect, it corroborates the Latin American Identity of the initiative.

Towards modular regionalism: the proliferation of Latin American cooperation

This article addresses three questions: why there was a surge in regional cooperation projects in Latin America in the last decade; how to characterize the current multi-faceted scenario; and how to make this complexity work. After a review of six theoretical perspectives, an original conceptual approach is proposed: "modular regionalism." This credibly answers the three questions and offers policy recommendations.

Contemporary issues in the government and administration of Latin American megacities

This paper is the first to systematically analyze and compare the structures of city governance and administration for seven major cities in Latin America, four of which are megacities (population of over 10 million), and three others are large national capitals. U.S. and U. K. models of city administration are reviewed as baseline models against which differences in Latin American may be explored. Structures of Government in Latin America show several important features and trends: 1) the lack of metropolitan (cross jurisdictional) authority; 2) the existence of strong mayors and weak councils"; 3) high levels of partisanship; 4) overlapping rather than interlocking bureaucracies; 5) pressures towards the privatization of city services, but continuing tension over the desirability of public versus private control; 6) greater fiscal responsibility and autonomy; and 7), a continuing marginalization of public participation in megacity governance.In spite of these features, many cities throughout the region (regardless of whether they are megacity size or national capitals), are actively intensifying their efforts to develop more effective, accountable and democratic governance structures.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF AMERICAN AND SPANISH CRUISE PASSENGERS' BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS

ABSTRACT Earlier studies of cross-national differences in consumer behavior in different consumption sectors have verified that cultural differences have a strong influence on consumers. Despite the importance of cross-national analysis, no studies in the literature examine the moderating effects of nationality on the construction of behavioral intentions and their antecedents among cruise line passengers. This study investigates the moderating effects of nationality on the relationships between perceived value, satisfaction, trust and behavioral intentions among Spanish and (U.S.) American passengers of cruise lines that use Barcelona as home port and port-of-call. A theoretical model was tested with a total of 968 surveys. Structural equation models (SEMs) were used, by means of a multigroup analysis. Results of this study indicated that Spaniards showed stronger relationships between trust and behavioral intentions, and between emotional value and satisfaction. Americans presented stronger relationships between service quality and satisfaction, and between service quality and behavioral intentions.