Aspectos ecológicos da tripanossomíase americana: XVII - Desenvolvimento da domiciliação triatomínea regional, em centro de endemismo de Triatoma sordida

São apresentados os resultados obtidos mediante as observações sobre o processo de domiciliação triatomínea, após a desinsetização domiciliar, e levadas a efeito no período de janeiro de 1975 a janeiro de 1979. A região estudada inclui-se no domínio paisagístico dos cerrados do Brasil Central, considerado como centro de dispersão de Triatoma sordida. A domiciliação local, inicialmente encontrada, implicou a participação dessa espécie e de Triatoma infestans. Após a realização do expurgo, as pesquisas de vigilância trimestrais e os levantamentos finais evidenciaram a ocorrência de novo processo de domiciliação de triatomíneos, de decurso lento, e resultando em coeficientes de positividade de edifícios acentuadamente inferiores aos registrados por ocasião do levantamento inicial, durante todo o período de observação. Após o expurgo, o valor geral do coeficiente de edifícios (casas e anexos) positivos variou do valor mínimo de 1,9 ao máximo de 5,7%, enquanto foi de 40,4% o observado quando do levantamento inicial. Essa situação perdurou pelo tempo mínimo de três anos e meio, o que permite recomendar que a vigilância e a possível aplicação do expurgo seletivo, subseqüentes à desinsetização geral, sejam iniciadas a partir de decorrido tal prazo. Nesse ínterim, recomenda-se a motivação dos habitantes locais, no sentido de obter-lhes a colaboração para a denúncia de novos focos intradomiciliares. Na transferência da infecção tripanossômica para o ambiente domiciliar evidenciou-se papel importante desempenhado por vertebrados domiciliados ou em domiciliação, em especial modo ratos (Rattus) e gambás (Didelphis), de hábitos ubiquistas. No processo de evolução da nova domiciliação triatomínea, coube papel preponderante a T. sordida mediante a ocupação inicial do peridomicílio. O reaparecimento de T. infestans deveu-se principalmente à influência da atividade humana, em especial modo, a mobilidade dos habitantes locais. O papel desempenhado pelo R. neglectus foi pouco expressivo embora, à semelhança de T. sordida, tenha facilmente desenvolvido colônias em galinheiros experimentais. A participação proporcional dos dois principais triatomíneos na composição específica das populações domiciliadas, observada antes e após o expurgo em cinco diferentes ocasiões, foi avaliada pelos respectivos percentuais dentro do número total e edificações (casas e anexos) encontradas positivas. Os resultados mostraram aumento constante da proporção correspondente a T. sordida e diminuição da referente a T. infestans. Atribuiu-se a fatores educacionais e habitacionais maior influência sobre a domiciliação desta espécie do que na daquela. Observou-se também indícios sobre a possibilidade de dispersão ativa de T. infestans. Nas áreas rurais, os anexos peridomiciliares revelaram-se como ecótopos de concentração para o início da domiciliação de triatomíneos silvestres, em especial modo, de T. sordida. As áreas com pequeno número de anexos, aparentemente permanecem negativas por tempo mais prolongado, levando a supor que a domiciliação encontre ali maiores dificuldades de se desenvolver.

Aspectos ecológicos da tripanossomíase americana: XIX - desenvolvimento da domiciliação triatomínea regional, em centro de endemismo de Panstrongylus megistus

São apresentados os resultados obtidos mediante as observações sobre o processo de domiciliação triatomínea em região incluída no domínio paisagístico Tropical Atlântico, considerado como centro de dispersão do Panstrongylus megistus. As observações foram levadas a efeito no período de março de 1976 a outubro de 1978, em áreas onde a domiciliação inicial implicou a participação dessa espécie e do Triatoma infestans. Após a realização do expurgo, as pesquisas de vigilância com ritmo trimestral e o levantamento final evidenciaram a ocorrência de novo processo de domiciliação triatomínea, porém restrita ao P. megistus e limitada ao peridomicílio, com coeficientes de positividade de edifícios acentuadamente inferiores aos registrados quando do levantamento inicial. Tal situação perdurou durante todo o período de observação. Após o expurgo, o valor geral do coeficiente de positividade dos edifícios variou do valor mínimo de 0,8% ao máximo de 2,7%, enquanto que foi de 23,4% o observado por ocasião do primeiro levantamento. Essa situação persistiu pelo tempo mínimo de dois anos e quatro meses, o que permite recomendar que a vigilância e a aplicação do expurgo seletivo, se necessário, sejam iniciadas após cerca de três anos decorridos da desinsetização geral. Recomenda-se que, nesse interim, se proceda à motivação dos habitantes locais objetivando obter-lhes a colaboração para a denúncia de novos focos intradomiciliares. No possível mecanismo de transferência da infecção tripanossômica para o ambiente domiciliar, as evidências sugerem a participação de vertebrados domiciliados, em especial modo ratos (Rattus) e gambás (Didelphis), de hábitos ubiquistas. O papel do P. megistus no processo de evolução da nova domiciliação triatomínea foi praticamente exclusivo, tendo o Rhodnius neglectus ocorrido de maneira esporádica. O não reaparecimento do T. infestans pôde ser atribuído à pouca ou mesmo ausente mobilidade da população humana local. Os resultados da participação de P. megistus na reinfestação domiciliar mostrou que esta rapidamente atingiu os níveis de positividade observados para essa espécie na área testemunha, mas sem tendência ao incremento posterior.

Aspectos ecológicos da tripanossomíase americana: XXI - Comportamento de espécies triatomíneas silvestres na reinfestação do intra e peridomicílio

Apresentam-se os resultados obtidos com a observação da presença triatomínea em três localidades, uma delas caracterizada por estar submetida a vigilância anual ininterrupta, e duas por terem sido expurgadas respectivamente seis e um ano e meio antes. As duas primeiras situam-se em áreas de endemicidade de Panstrongylus megistus e a terceira em região endêmica para Triatoma sordida. Em todas foram levadas a efeito inspeções bimestrais destinadas a detectar a presença de triatomíneos no intra e no peridomicílio. Pôde-se confirmar o aspecto lento da domiciliação de P. megistus, em aparente contraste com o T. sordida que desenvolve intensas colônias peridomiciliares. Pelo menos em relação a esta última espécie, não parece haver diferença atrativa por parte do intra e do peridomicílio. A reinfestação do P. megistus acha-se associada freqüente com a presença de infecção natural. A reintrodução de Triatoma infestans associa-se à mobilidade da população humana. A colonização peridomiciliar de T. sordida permitiu o estudo do desenvolvimento dessas colônias, obtendo-se marcante paralelismo com os dados conseguidos em galinheiros experimentais (GE) e objeto de publicações anteriores. A presença de Rhodnius neglectus nas três áreas, embora discreta, chama a atenção para seu possível potencial de domiciliação. Com este artigo encerra-se a série "Aspectos ecológicos de tripanossomíase americana".

Studies in search of a suitable experimental insect model for xenodiagnosis of hosts with Chagas' disease: 3 - On the interaction of vector species and parasite strain in the reaction of bugs to infection by Trypanosoma cruzi

The reaction of nine vector species of Chagas' disease to infection by seven different Trypanosoma cruzi strains; Berenice, Y, FL, CL, S. Felipe, Colombiana and Gávea, are examined and compared. On the basis of the insects' ability to establish and maintain the infection, vector species could be divided into two distinct groups which differ in their reaction to an acute infection by T. cruzi. While the proportion of positive bugs was found to be low in Triatoma infestans and Triatoma dimidiata it was high, ranging from 96.9% to 100% in the group of wild (Rhodnius neglectus, Triatoma rubrovaria)and essentially sylvatic vectors in process of adaptation to human dwellings, maintained under control following successful insecticidal elimination of Triatoma infestans (Panstrongylus megistus, Triatoma sordida and Triatoma pseudomaculata). An intermediate position is held by Triatoma brasiliensis and Rhodnius prolixus. This latter has been found to interchange between domestic and sylvatic environments. The most important finding is the strikingly good reaction between each species of the sylvatic bugs and practically all T. cruzi strains herein studied, thus indicating that the factors responsible for the excellent reaction of P.megistus to infection by Y strain, as previously reported also come into operation in the reaction of the same vector species to acute infections by five of the remaining T.cruzi strains. Comparison or data reported by other investigators with those herein described form the basis of the discussion of Dipetalogaster maximus as regards its superiority as a xenodiagnostic agent.

Primeiro caso autóctone de tripanossomíase americana no Estado do Acre (Brasil) e sua correlação com as cepas isoladas do caso humano e de triatomíneos silvestres da área

São apresentados os resultados obtidos na investigação entorno-epidemiológica realizada no estudo do primeiro caso humano autóctone de tripanossomíase americana no Estado do Acre (Brasil). A investigação demonstrou ausência de domiciliação triatomínea, ficando descartada totalmente a possibilidade de transmissão congênita ou transfusional. Não foi possível verificar se a transmissão foi metaxênica através da invasão domiciliar de barbeiro silvestre, ou se por via digestiva através de alimentos contaminados. Foram isoladas duas cepas de Trypanosoma cruzi, uma do caso humano chamada Acre-Humana (AH) e outra de Rhodnius robustus coletados em palmeiras uricuri (Attalea sp) nas proximidades da casa, chamada Acre-Silvestre (AS). Ficou comprovada a existência de correlação entre os caracteres morfobiológicos e patogênicos das duas amostras estudadas: mostraram-se patogênicas para camundongos, infectando 100% dos animais, quer com formas metacíclicas de triatomíneos, quer com formas sanguícolas de doadores em fase aguda. A infecção dos camundongos nas duas amostras é grave com curto período pré-patente, parasitemia elevada e taxa de letalidade alta. Em ambas as cepas, em fase aguda, são abundantes ninhos de amastigotas, principalmente no coração e fígado. As amostras AH e AS conferem aos animais que sobrevivem boa resistência contra infecções pela amostra Y. Cultivaram-se facilmente em meios líquidos e semi-sólidos e infectaram experimentalmente seis espécies de triatomíneos. Os resultados comprovam mais uma vez a presença de focos naturais desta parasitose na região.

Studies in search of a suitable experimental insect model for xenodiagnosis of hosts with Chagas' disease: 4 - The reflection of parasite stock in the responsiveness of different vector species to chronic infection with different Trypanosoma cruzi stocks

Previous studies (1982,1987) have emphasized the superiority of sylvatic vector species over domestic species as xenodiagnostic agents in testing hosts with acute or chronic infections by T. cruzi "Y" stock. The present study, which is unique in that it contains data on both infectivity rates produced by the same stock in 11 different vector species and also the reaction of the same vector species to seven different parasite stocks, establishes the general validity of linking efficiency of xenodiagnosis to the biotope of its agent. For example, infectivity rates produced by "São Felipe" stock varied from 82.5% to 98.3% in sylvatic vectors but decreased to 42.5% to 71.3% in domestic species. "Colombiana" stock produced in the same sylvatic vectors infectivity rates ranging from 12.5% to 45%. These shrank to 5%-22.5% in domestic bugs. The functional role of the biotope in the vector-parasite interaction has not been eluddated. But since this phenomenon has been observed to be stable and easy to reproduce, it leads us to believe that the results obtained are valid. Data presented also provide increasing evidence that the infectivity rates exhibited by bugs from xenodiagnosis in chronic hosts, are parasite stock specific. For example, infectivity rates produced by "Berenice", "Y", "FL" and "CL" varied in R. neglectus from 26.3% to 75%; in P. megistus from 56.3% to 83.8%; in T. sordida from 28.8% to 58.8% in T. pseudomaculata from 41.3% to 66.3% and in T. rubrovaria from 48.8% to 85%. Data from xenodiagnosis in the same hosts, carrying acute infections by the same parasite stocks, gave the five sylvatic vectors a positive rating of approximately 100%, thus suggesting that the heavy loads of parasites circulating in the acute hosts obscured the characteristic interspecific differences for the parasite stock. Nonetheless these latter were revealed in the same hosts with chronic infections stimulated by very low numbers of the same parasite stocks. Certain observations here described lead us to speculate as to the possibility of further results from other parasite stocks, allowing the association of the infectivity rates produced in bugs by different parasite stocks with the isoenzymic patterns revealed by these stocks.

Infestación por triatominos en comunidades indígenas de Valledupar, Colombia

OBJETIVO: Calcular los índices infestación por triatominos en comunidades indígenas en Colombia. MÉTODOS: Se realizó estudio descriptivo en 19 comunidades indígenas del municipio de Valledupar Departamento de Cesar, Colombia. Durante junio a diciembre de 2007 se recolectaron triatominos por búsqueda activa en las viviendas de los indígenas. Los insectos luego fueron identificados por las claves de Lent & Wygodzinsky. Se desarrolló estudio del proceso infectivo en modelo animal y análisis enzimático de cepas de Trypanosoma cruzi, detectadas en heces de triatominos. RESULTADOS: Rhodnius prolixus presentó índice de densidad en las viviendas de 154,7%, Triatoma dimidiata de 102,45%, Triatoma maculata de 109,25% y Panstrogylus geniculatus de 0,3%. El índice promedio de infestación de las cuatro especies fue de 40,54% y, el de infección con T. cruzi de 9,4%. De cinco hemocultivos positivos para T. cruzi, tres se caracterizaron por isoenzimas, clasificándose en T. cruzi grupo I. El estudio de las biopsias reveló pocas características patológicas durante el proceso de infección con las cepas de T. cruzi aisladas de triatominos domiciliados. CONCLUSIÓN: Los altos índices de infestación por triatominos en las viviendas y el índice de infección por T. cruzi, evidencian la transmisión activa de la enfermedad de Chagas, situación que amerita la aplicación de medidas de control vectorial y el estudio seroepidemilógico de la población en riesgo. La identificación de las cepas de T. cruzi como grupo I concuerda con otros estudios realizados en esta región colombiana.

Lethality of triatomines (Hemiptera: Reduviiae), vectors of Chagas' disease, feeding on blood baits containing synthetic insecticides, under laboratory conditions

A laboratory study was conducted to test the toxicity of synthetic insecticides added to defibrinated sheep blood kept at room temperature and offered as food to the following triatomine species: Triatoma infestans, Panstrongylus megistus, Triatoma vitticeps, Triatoma pseudomaculata, Triatoma brasiliensis and Rhodnius prolixus. The insecticides used, at a concentration of 1g/l, were: HCH, DDT, Malathion and Trichlorfon, and the lethalithy observed at the end of a 7-day period varied according to the active principle of each. HCH was the most effective by the oral route, killing 100% of the insects, except P. megistus (95.7%) and T. pseudomaculata (94.1%). Trichlorfon killed the insects at rates ranging from 71.8% (T. vitticeps) to 98% (R. prolixus). Malathion was slightly less efficient, killing the insects at rates from 56.8% (T. vitticeps) to 97% (T.brasiliensis). DDT was the least effective, with a killing rate of 10% (T. vitticeps) to 75% (T.brasiliensis). Since the tests were performed at room temperature, we suggest that baits of this type should be tried for the control of triatomines in the field.

Synanthropic rodent reservoirs of Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) cruzi in the valley of Caracas, Venezuela

Direct blood examination and xenodiagnosis of 47 synanthropic rodents (Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus, Mus musculus) captured in the valley of Caracas, Venezuela, revealed trypanosomal infections in 12 R. rattus, 10 with T. lewisi and 2 with T. cruzi. Of the latter the course of parasitemia, the pleomorphism of the bloodstream trypomastigotes, tissue tropism in naturally and experimentally infected rats and mice, host mortality, morphology of fecal parasites in Rhodnius prolixus used for xenodiagnosis, and infectivity of the bug feces for NMRI mice, were all characteristic of Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) cruzi. One rat, with a patent parasitemia, had numerous nests of amastigotes in cardiac muscle and moderate parasitism of the smooth muscle of the duodenum and of skeletal muscle. Mice inoculated with fecal flagellates from the bugs had moderate tissue tropism in the same organs and also in the colon and pancreas. The possible role of R. rattus in the establishment of foci of Chagas’ disease in Caracas is discussed

Interrupting Chagas disease transmission in Venezuela

The interruption of vectorial transmission of Chagas disease in Venezuela is attributed to the combined effects of ongoing entomoepidemiological surveillance, ongoing house spraying with residual insecticides and the concurrent building and modification of rural houses in endemic areas during almost five decades. The original endemic areas which totaled 750,000 km², have been reduced to 365,000 km². During 1958-1968, initial entomological evaluations carried out showed that the house infestation index ranged between 60-80%, the house infection index at 8-11% and a house density index of 30-50 triatomine bugs per house. By 1990-98, these indexes were further reduced to 1.6-4.0%, 0.01-0.6% and 3-4 bugs per house respectively. The overall rural population seroprevalence has declined from 44.5% (95% C.I.: 43.4-45.3%) to 9.2% (95% C.I.: 9.0-9.4%) for successive grouped periods from 1958 to 1998. The annual blood donor prevalence is firmly established below 1%. The population at risk of infection has been estimated to be less than four million. Given that prevalence rates are stable and appropriate for public health programmes, consideration has been given to potential biases that may distort results such as: a) geographical differences in illness or longevity of patients; b) variations in levels of ascertainment; c) variations in diagnostic criteria; and d) variations in population structure, mainly due to appreciable population migration. The endemic areas with continuous transmission are now mainly confined to piedmonts, as well as patchy foci in higher mountainous ranges, where the exclusive vector is Rhodnius prolixus. There is also an unstable area, of which landscapes are made up of grasslands with scattered broad-leaved evergreen trees and costal plains, where transmission is very low and occasional outbreaks are reported.

Chagas disease in the Brazilian Amazon: IV. a new cross-sectional study

A new conglomerate family sample of 194 dwellings with 996 resident persons were studied in the town of Barcelos, State of Amazonas, in order to re-evaluate the risk of Chagas disease. During the survey the persons were interviewed and in this occasion we showed to them a collection of Panstrongylus, Rhodnius and Triatoma, asking if they recognized and eventually have been bitten by this kind of bugs. At this time we collected 500 ul of blood in microtainer® tubes from 886 interviewed persons who gave permission after informed consent. A screening test for T. cruzi antibodies based on agglutination of colored polymer particles, sensitized with three different synthetic peptides of T. cruzi (ID-PaGIA Chagas Test)®, showed 13.2% of sera positivity, but only 6.8% were confirmed by indirect immunofluorescence, and ELISA with purified T. cruzi antigens. Two hundred and six interviewed persons (20.7%) recognized the triatomines, as "piaçavas' lice" and 62 (30%) confirmed that have been bitten by the bugs, 25.8% of them had a positive serology for T. cruzi infection. Electrocardiographic alterations were shown in 9.3% of the seropositives and in 11.9% of the seronegative cases. This was considered not statistically significant.

Enzootic transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi and T. rangeli in the Federal District of Brazil

The Federal District of Brazil (DF) lies within the Cerrado biome, where open shrubland (savannas) is interspersed with riverside gallery forests and permanent swamps (veredas). Trypanosoma cruzi-infected native triatomines occur in the area, but the enzootic transmission of trypanosomatids remains poorly characterized. A parasitological survey involving sylvatic triatomines (166 Rhodnius neglectus collected from Mauritia flexuosa palms) and small mammals (98 marsupials and 70 rodents, totaling 18 species) was conducted in 18 sites (mainly gallery forests and veredas) of the DF. Parasites were isolated, morphologically identified, and characterized by PCR of nuclear (mini-exon gene) and kinetoplast DNA (kDNA). Six R. neglectus, seven Didelphis albiventris and one Akodon cursor were infected by trypanosomes; wild reservoir infection is documented for the first time in the DF. kDNA PCR detected T. cruzi in five R. neglectus and mini-exon gene PCR revealed T. cruzi I in isolates from D. albiventris. Parasites infecting one bug yielded T. rangeli KP1+ kDNA amplicons. In spite of the occurrence of T. cruzi-infected D. albiventris (an important wild and peridomestic reservoir) and R. neglectus (a secondary vector displaying synanthropic behavior), a low-risk of human Chagas disease transmission could be expected in the DF, considering the low prevalence infection recorded in this work. The detection of T. rangeli KP1+ associated with R. neglectus in the DF widens the known range of this parasite in Brazil and reinforces the hypothesis of adaptation of T. rangeli populations (KP1+ and KP1-) to distinct evolutionary Rhodnius lineages.

On the possibility of autochthonous Chagas disease in Roraima, Amazon region, Brazil, 2000-2001

Chagas disease has been almost entirely eradicated from the arid zones in Central and Northeastern Brazil where rare or no autochthonous cases have been reported. However, in the last 10 years the disease has increasingly been registered in the Amazon Region. Aiming to investigate the possibility of the occurrence of autochthonous cycle of Chagas disease in Roraima, triatomine collections, vectorial susceptibility studies (this one to be shown elsewhere), parasitological and serological analyses were conducted in three agricultural settlement areas (Rorainópolis, Passarão Project and Ilha Community). Blood-donor candidates were also investigated. This is the first epidemiological survey on Chagas disease conducted in agricultural settlements in Roraima. Triatomine species found were Triatoma maculata, Rhodnius pictipes, Rhodnius robustus and Panstrongylus geniculatus. Trypanosoma cruzi detection analyses included xenodiagnosis, indirect immunofluorescence, indirect hemaglutination, ELISA and kinetoplast PCR amplification. Natural triatomine infection was not found in intestinal contents. Twenty-five adult settlers (1.4% out of 1821, all > 15 year-old, 20 migrants) presented anti-T. cruzi antibodies. Two migrant settlers (from Minas Gerais and Maranhão) tested positive for more than two serological tests, besides either being positive for xenodiagnosis or PCR. Results show that Chagas disease is not endemic in the areas studied. However, all elements of the transmission cycle are present, demanding for an adequate and continuous vigilance.

Detection of Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma rangeli infection in triatomine vectors by amplification of the histone H2A/SIRE and the sno-RNA-C11 genes

Trypanosoma rangeli is non pathogenic for humans but of important medical and epidemiological interest because it shares vertebrate hosts, insect vectors, reservoirs and geographic areas with T. cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease. Therefore, in this work, we set up two PCR reactions, TcH2AF/R and TrFR2, to distinguish T. cruzi from T. rangeli in mixed infections of vectors based on amplification of the histone H2A/SIRE and the small nucleolar RNA Cl1 genes, respectively. Both PCRs were able to appropriately detect all T. cruzi or T. rangeli experimentally infected-triatomines, as well as the S35/S36 PCR which amplifies the variable region of minicircle kDNA of T. cruzi. In mixed infections, whereas T. cruzi DNA was amplified in 100% of samples with TcH2AF/R and S35/S36 PCRs, T. rangeli was detected in 71% with TrF/R2 and in 6% with S35/S36. In a group of Rhodnius colombiensis collected from Coyaima (Colombia), T. cruzi was identified in 100% with both PCRs and T. rangeli in 14% with TrF/R2 and 10% with S35/S36 PCR. These results show that TcH2AF/R and TrF/R2 PCRs which are capable of recognizing all T. cruzi and T. rangeli strains and lineages could be useful for diagnosis as well as for epidemiological field studies of T. cruzi and T. rangeli vector infections.

Morphometric changes of Triatoma flavida Neiva, 1911 (Hemiptera:Triatominae) in the transition from sylvatic to laboratory conditions

The one-generational metric changes occurring in Triatoma flavida (Hemiptera: Triatominae) when carried from its wild habitat (caves) to laboratory, were examined using traditional morphometric techniques. As for other species of Triatoma, Rhodnius or Panstrongylus studied in similar conditions, a significant reduction of head, thorax and wing size was observed. Sexual dimorphism of the wings, while present in the wild sample, was not detected anymore in the laboratory individuals. Biological significance and epidemiological importance are discussed.