Do termoscópio ao termômetro digital: quatro séculos de termometria

This work describes the evolution of temperature measurement in the last four centuries using thermometers based on the thermal expansion of liquids such as ethyl alcohol and mercury. The concept of temperature was strongly dependent on the researcher and there was no systematic temperature scale for universal use. The precursor of the common thermometer was the thermoscope, probably invented at the end of the XVIth century. In the XVIIIth century the instrument was greatly improved and several thermometric scales were proposed some of which have been in use until now. These scales were based on arbitrary points. Mercury and ethyl alcohol were the most employed thermometric fluids. In the XIXth century, the concept of absolute zero was a great advance in this field. The most important contribution during the XXth century was the establishment of international temperature scales. The design of the thermometer has been essentially the same along the last 300 years, but many models were proposed for industrial and research purposes. Its association with the densimeter was of great importance for control of industrial chemical processes and also for teaching purposes in the past. Nowadays, there is a clear tendency to replace mercury-based thermometers by electronic digital models. Thermochemistry is the natural relationship between temperature and chemistry.

De Svante Arrhenius ao peagâmetro digital: 100 anos de medida de acidez

This work describes the establishment of the concept of pH and the evolution of its measurement. The origin of the pH definition can be found in the development of the chemistry of aqueous solutions during the XIXth century. The electrolytic dissociation theory by Svante Arrhenius played a central role. After the proposal of the pH scale by Sörensen, many years were necessary for the acceptance of this new parameter among chemists in general. Its importance was first recognized in biochemistry and related areas. Twenty years after, its importance had been recognized in many industrial and laboratorial practices. The previous methods were based on colorimetric and electrometric methods, but both suffered from many problems. Acceptance of pH in Chemistry was only possible after the development of experimental trustable measurements. The invention of the pH meter was the primordial step.

Chemotaxonomy of three genera of the annonaceae family using self-organizing maps and 13C NMR data of diterpenes

The Annonaceae family is distributed throughout Neotropical regions of the world. In Brazil, it covers nearly all natural formations particularly Annona, Xylopia and Polyalthia and is characterized chemically by the production of sources of terpenoids (mainly diterpenes), alkaloids, steroids, polyphenols and, flavonoids. Studies from 13C NMR data of diterpenes related with their botanical occurrence were used to generate self-organizing maps (SOM). Results corroborate those in the literature obtained from morphological and molecular data for three genera and the model can be used to project other diterpenes. Therefore, the model produced can predict which genera are likely to contain a compound.

Avaliação da classificação digital de povoamentos florestais em imagens de satélite através de índices de acurácia

A utilização de matéria-prima de origem florestal aumentou significativamente nas últimas décadas. A busca por alta produtividade concretizou-se com a introdução de espécies exóticas, principalmente Eucalyptus sp. e Pinus sp. Neste trabalho avaliou-se a precisão da classificação digital obtida no levantamento de povoamentos florestais implantados e naturais da área da carta de Cachoeira do Sul - RS, utilizando técnicas de geoprocessamento, sensoriamento remoto, SIG (sistema de informação geográfica) e GPS (sistema de posicionamento global). Verificou-se que a área é ocupada por vegetação natural (35,54%), Pinus sp. (1,89%) e Eucalyptus sp. (0,77%), cuja precisão na classificação supervisionada digital foi: Exatidão global (85,23%), Kappa (84,90%) e Tau (77,74%). Concluiu-se que os três índices de acurácia podem ser utilizados, apesar de os índices Kappa e Tau mostrarem-se mais consistentes.

Avaliação de técnicas de classificação digital de imagens landsat em diferentes padrões de cobertura da terra em Rondônia

Dados de sensoriamento remoto têm sido largamente utilizados para classificação da cobertura e uso da terra, em particular graças à aquisição periódica de imagens de satélite e à generalização dos sistemas de processamento digital de imagens, que oferecem uma variedade de algoritmos de classificação de imagens. Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar alguns dos métodos mais comuns de classificações supervisionadas e não supervisionadas para imagens do sensor TM do satélite Landsat-5, em três áreas com diferentes padrões de paisagem em Rondônia: (1) áreas de fazendas de "Médio porte", (2) assentamentos no padrão "Espinha de peixe" e (3) áreas de contato entre floresta e "Cerrado". A comparação com um mapa de referência baseado na estatística Kappa produziu indicadores de desempenho bons ou superiores (melhores resultados - K-médias: k = 0,68; k = 0,77; k = 0,64 e MaxVer: k = 0,71; k = 0,89; k = 0,70, respectivamente nas três áreas citadas), para os algoritmos utilizados. Os resultados indicaram que a escolha de um algoritmo deve considerar tanto a capacidade de discriminar várias assinaturas espectrais em diferentes padrões de paisagem quanto a relação custo/benefício decorrente das várias etapas do trabalho dos operadores que elaboram um mapa de cobertura e uso da terra. Este trabalho apontou a necessidade de esforço mais sistemático de avaliação prévia de várias opções de execução de um projeto específico antes de se iniciar o trabalho de elaboração de um mapa de cobertura e uso da terra.

Comparação entre análise de tronco digital e convencional em árvores de mimosa scabrella bentham e pinus taeda L.

A análise completa de tronco é bastante aplicada em estudos de crescimento de espécies florestais que apresentam anéis de crescimento distinguíveis. As medições dos anéis são feitas manualmente com régua milimetrada, procedimento estabelecido como convencional. Porém, Rosot et al. (2003) desenvolveram procedimentos para que essas medições sejam feitas por programas de computador, trazendo avanço significativo para a aplicação da técnica. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar as medições manuais com as digitais em análise de tronco de Mimosa scabrella e Pinus taeda. Seis árvores de cada espécie foram utilizadas, e as diferenças entre os dois procedimentos para DAP (cm), altura total (m), área transversal (cm²) e volume (cm³) de cada anel de crescimento foram comparadas com um teste t(0,05)de dados pareados. As diferenças entre as medições manuais e as digitais foram significativas apenas para o volume do P. taeda em algumas idades. Os resultados indicam que a anatro digital é uma boa opção para a anatro convencional, demandando pessoa treinada para utilizar as ferramentas de Sistema de Informações Geográficas (SIG).

Regionalização de vazões com base em modelo digital de elevação para a bacia do Rio Paraíba do Sul

A regionalização de vazões tem sido realizada com o objetivo de disponibilizar informações hidrológicas em locais sem dados ou com poucas informações disponíveis, porém a determinação das características físicas das bacias de drenagem para cada local de interesse limita consideravelmente a aplicação dos resultados de um estudo convencional de regionalização de vazões. Uma das soluções para esse problema é a automação do processo de delimitação de bacias, utilizando-se de modelo digital de elevação hidrologicamente consistente (MDEHC). O objetivo principal deste trabalho foi a regionalização de vazões máxima, mínima e média de longo período e da curva de permanência para a bacia hidrográfica do Rio Paraíba do Sul, a montante da cidade de Volta Redonda, com base em um MDEHC. O modelo digital de elevação mostrou-se hidrologicamente consistente, possibilitando, assim, a determinação automática das características físicas da bacia. Foram identificadas quatro regiões hidrologicamente homogêneas e obtidas equações de regressão em que a área de drenagem e o comprimento do curso d'água principal se caracterizaram como as variáveis mais expressivas para a representação das diversas variáveis e funções regionalizadas.

Digital surface area assessment of broiler chickens

Surface area (SA) of poultry is an important parameter for heat and mass transfer calculations. Optical approaches, such as the moiré technique (MT), are non-destructive, result in accuracy and speed gains, and preserve the object integrity. The objective of this research was to develop and validate a new protocol for estimating the surface area (SA) of broiler chickens based on the MT. Sixty-six Ross breed broiler chickens (twenty-seven male, thirty-nine female, ages spanning all growth phases) were used in this study. The dimensions (length, width and height) and body mass of randomly selected broiler chickens were evaluated in the laboratory. Chickens were illuminated by a light source, and grids were projected onto the chickens to allow their shape to be determined and recorded. Next, the skin and feathers of the chickens were removed to allow SA to be determined by conventional means. These measurements were then used for calibration and validation. The MT for image analysis was a reliable means of evaluating the three-dimensional shape and SA of broiler chickens. This technique, which is neither invasive nor destructive, is a good alternative to the conventional destructive methods.

Cadastral maps of irrigated areas by center pivots in the State of Minas Gerais, using CBERS-2B/CCD satellite imaging

Medium-resolution satellite images have been widely used for the identification and quantification of irrigated areas by center pivot. These areas, which present predominantly circular forms, can be easily identified by visual analyses of these images. In addition to identifying and quantifying areas irrigated by center pivot, other information that is associated to these areas is fundamental for producing cadastral maps. The goal of this work was to generate cadastral mapping of areas irrigated by center pivots in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, with the purpose of supplying information on irrigated agriculture. Using the satellite CBERS2B/CCD, images were used to identify and quantify irrigated areas and then associate these areas with a database containing information about: irrigated area, perimeter, municipality, path row, basin in which the pivot is located, and the date of image acquisition.3,781 center pivots systems were identified. The smallest area irrigated was 4.6 hectares and the largest one was 192.6 hectares. The total estimated value of irrigated area was 254,875 hectares. The largest number of center pivots appeared in the municipalities of Unaí and Paracatu, with 495 and 459 systems, respectively. Cadastral mapping is a very useful tool to assist and enhance information on irrigated agriculture in the State of Minas Gerais.

Determination of management zones from normalized and standardized equivalent produtivity maps in the soybean culture

Through the site-specific management, the precision agriculture brings new techniques for the agricultural sector, as well as a larger detailing of the used methods and increase of the global efficiency of the system. The objective of this work was to analyze two techniques for definition of management zones using soybean yield maps, in a productive area handled with localized fertilization and other with conventional fertilization. The sampling area has 1.74 ha, with 128 plots with site-specific fertilization and 128 plots with conventional fertilization. The productivity data were normalized by two techniques (normalized and standardized equivalent productivity), being later classified in management zones. It can be concluded that the two methods of management zones definition had revealed to be efficient, presenting similarities in the data disposal. Due to the fact that the equivalent standardized productivity uses standard score, it contemplates a better statistics justification.

Comparison measures of maps generated by geostatistical methods

This study uses several measures derived from the error matrix for comparing two thematic maps generated with the same sample set. The reference map was generated with all the sample elements and the map set as the model was generated without the two points detected as influential by the analysis of local influence diagnostics. The data analyzed refer to the wheat productivity in an agricultural area of 13.55 ha considering a sampling grid of 50 x 50 m comprising 50 georeferenced sample elements. The comparison measures derived from the error matrix indicated that despite some similarity on the maps, they are different. The difference between the estimated production by the reference map and the actual production was of 350 kilograms. The same difference calculated with the mode map was of 50 kilograms, indicating that the study of influential points is of fundamental importance to obtain a more reliable estimative and use of measures obtained from the error matrix is a good option to make comparisons between thematic maps.

Comparison of maps of spatial variability of soil resistance to penetration constructed with and without covariables using a spatial linear model

A study about the spatial variability of data of soil resistance to penetration (RSP) was conducted at layers 0.0-0.1 m, 0.1-0.2 m and 0.2-0.3 m depth, using the statistical methods in univariate forms, i.e., using traditional geostatistics, forming thematic maps by ordinary kriging for each layer of the study. It was analyzed the RSP in layer 0.2-0.3 m depth through a spatial linear model (SLM), which considered the layers 0.0-0.1 m and 0.1-0.2 m in depth as covariable, obtaining an estimation model and a thematic map by universal kriging. The thematic maps of the RSP at layer 0.2-0.3 m depth, constructed by both methods, were compared using measures of accuracy obtained from the construction of the matrix of errors and confusion matrix. There are similarities between the thematic maps. All maps showed that the RSP is higher in the north region.

Analysis of land use and occupancy in permanent preservation areas according to the hydrography of Ribeirão Água Fria - Bofete, SP - Brazil

The use conflicts are determined by the inadequate occupations of the soil, as it is the case of soil occupation inside of permanent preservation areas. This study aimed to determine the classes of the soil use and if there are conflicts inside of permanent preservation areas along the drainage network of the Água Fria Stream watershed, located in Bofete city - São Paulo, Brazil. It locates geographically between the coordinates: 48°09'30" to 48°18'30" longitude WGr., 22°58'30" to 23°04'30" latitude S, with an area of 15242.84 ha. The map of soil use was elaborated through the interpretation directly in the computer screen of satellite digital image. In the orbital data, the study area is inserted in the quadrant A, of image TM/Landsat - 5, orbit 220, point 76, passage 9/8th/2007. The Geographical Information System used was CartaLinx. The conflict areas of the watershed were obtained from the crossing between the maps of soil use and of PPAs. The results allowed the conclusion that more than half of the area (51.09%) is occupied by pastures, reflex of sandy soils and low fertility. It was also verified that although almost half of the watershed is covered with some type of vegetation (48.78% of natural forest /reforestation), it has approximately a third of permanent preservation areas used inappropriately by pastures (88.15%), reforestation (10.42%) and exposed soil (1.43%), totaling 343.07ha of conflicting areas, in a total of 993.26 ha of PPAs.

Soybean yield maps using regular and optimized sample with different configurations by simulated annealing

ABSTRACT This study aimed to compare thematic maps of soybean yield for different sampling grids, using geostatistical methods (semivariance function and kriging). The analysis was performed with soybean yield data in t ha-1 in a commercial area with regular grids with distances between points of 25x25 m, 50x50 m, 75x75 m, 100x100 m, with 549, 188, 66 and 44 sampling points respectively; and data obtained by yield monitors. Optimized sampling schemes were also generated with the algorithm called Simulated Annealing, using maximization of the overall accuracy measure as a criterion for optimization. The results showed that sample size and sample density influenced the description of the spatial distribution of soybean yield. When the sample size was increased, there was an increased efficiency of thematic maps used to describe the spatial variability of soybean yield (higher values of accuracy indices and lower values for the sum of squared estimation error). In addition, more accurate maps were obtained, especially considering the optimized sample configurations with 188 and 549 sample points.

Esclarecer o idoso sobre o exame digital retal diminui o desconforto na sua primeira realização?

OBJETIVO: Verificar o grau de desconforto referido por homens idosos que realizam pela primeira vez o exame digital retal (EDR) na prevenção do câncer de próstata e o efeito de esclarecimentos prévios sobre essa queixa. MÉTODOS: Estudo prospectivo e aleatório em 120 homens, com idade de 60 a 80 anos, distribuídos em dois grupos: grupo A (consulta médica rotineira) e grupo B (consulta médica com intervenção educativa). No grupo B, os instrumentos de informação foram: palestra informal com esclarecimentos sobre EDR e câncer de próstata, visualização de maquete da pelve masculina, mostruário com as relações anatômicas prostáticas, simulador do EDR e DVD com animação tridimensional dos órgãos pélvicos. O grau de desconforto foi medido através da escala visual de dor. Utilizou-se o teste do qui-quadrado, com significância de 0,05. RESULTADOS: Houve diferença significativa entre o grau de desconforto referido no EDR entre os dois grupos, 81% do grupo B referiram-no como leve e 80% do grupo A, como moderado ou intenso, com p significativo de 0,01. Os sinais e sintomas foram a principal razão da consulta em 35% dos pacientes, 78% foram à consulta sozinhos e 81% comentaram o exame com a parceira. Sem diferença estatística, 94,2% no grupo A e 97,8% no grupo B repetiriam o exame no ano seguinte e 91,6% no grupo A e 96,6% no grupo B relataram que o exame não foi pior do que imaginavam. Todos recomendariam o EDR para parentes ou amigos. CONCLUSÃO: Os pacientes que fizeram o EDR pela primeira vez após consulta urológica com esclarecimentos educativos prévios sobre o tema referiram significativamente menor desconforto.