Atributos químicos e físicos de latossolos e sua relação com os rendimentos de milho e feijão irrigados

Em sistemas de produção agrícola que utilizam a irrigação, uma das principais causas da variabilidade dos rendimentos, a disponibilidade de água para as culturas, é controlada. Nesse caso, outros fatores limitantes ao rendimento, relacionados a atributos de solo, passam a ter sua importância aumentada. Com o objetivo de investigar a variabilidade espacial dos principais atributos químicos e do rendimento de culturas, além de determinar os atributos químicos e físico-hídricos do solo em diferentes zonas de rendimento, foram analisadas duas áreas comerciais irrigadas por pivô central, com 51,8 e 58,2 ha, localizadas, respectivamente, em Trindade do Sul (TS) e Palmeira das Missões (PM), no Rio Grande do Sul (RS). As amostragens para caracterização dos atributos químicos foram georreferenciadas seguindo uma malha regular de 100 x 100 m, na camada de 0-0,10 m. Já para investigar a relação entre os atributos químicos e físico-hídricos do solo com os rendimentos obtidos, dada a extensão das áreas, três zonas com distinto potencial produtivo foram estabelecidas, utilizando os mapas de rendimento disponíveis (safras de feijão-preto de 2005/2006 e safrinha de 2006 em TS, e de milho de 2002/2003 e 2003/2004 em PM), obtidos por colhedoras equipadas com sensores de rendimento. Nessas zonas, quinze pontos amostrais foram investigados em cada área nas camadas de 0-0,05, 0,05-0,10 e 0,10-0,20 m. Os atributos químicos do solo foram submetidos à análise de estatística descritiva e geoestatística. Eles apresentaram dependência espacial classificada como forte e moderada, com modelo ajustado à semivariância predominantemente esférico. O P apresentou a maior variabilidade espacial e o pH a menor. Embora manejadas sob irrigação, ambas as áreas apresentaram variabilidade espacial de rendimento. Na zona de baixo rendimento de TS, foram constatadas acidez no solo, baixa saturação de bases e menor capacidade de água disponível, e na de PM foram observadas limitações físicas representadas por compactação por meio dos indicadores densidade, resistência à penetração e macroporosidade. A ocorrência de zonas com menor rendimento das culturas irrigadas nas duas áreas foi associada a limitações químicas e físicas do solo, especialmente em subsuperfície.

Postharvest nitrous oxide emissions from a subtropical oxisol as influenced by summer crop residues and their management

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is the most important non-CO2 greenhouse gas and soil management systems should be evaluated for their N2O mitigation potential. This research evaluated a long-term (22 years) experiment testing the effect of soil management systems on N2O emissions in the postharvest period (autumn) from a subtropical Rhodic Hapludox at the research center FUNDACEP, in Cruz Alta, state of Rio Grande do Sul. Three treatments were evaluated, one under conventional tillage with soybean residues (CTsoybean) and two under no-tillage with soybean (NTsoybean) and maize residues (NTmaize). N2O emissions were measured eight times within 24 days (May 2007) using closed static chambers. Gas flows were obtained based on the relations between gas concentrations in the chamber at regular intervals (0, 15, 30, 45 min) analyzed by gas chromatography. After soybean harvest, accumulated N2O emissions in the period were approximately three times higher in the untilled soil (164 mg m-2 N) than under CT (51 mg m-2 N), with a short-lived N2O peak of 670 mg m-2 h-1 N. In contrast, soil N2O emissions in NT were lower after maize than after soybean, with a N2O peak of 127 g m-2 h-1 N. The multivariate analysis of N2O fluxes and soil variables, which were determined simultaneously with air sampling, demonstrated that the main driving variables of soil N2O emissions were soil microbial activity, temperature, water-filled pore space, and NO3- content. To replace soybean monoculture, crop rotation including maize must be considered as a strategy to decrease soil N2O emissions from NT soils in Southern Brazil in a Autumn.

Atributos físicos de um argissolo em sistemas de culturas de longa duração sob semeadura direta

O sistema de semeadura direta, associado à utilização de plantas de cobertura, pode manter a qualidade do solo, melhorando e, ou, preservando seus atributos físicos em condições favoráveis ao desenvolvimento vegetal. O presente trabalho avaliou a densidade, porosidade, resistência à penetração e taxa de infiltração de água em um Argissolo Vermelho distrófico arênico, na área experimental do Departamento de Solos da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, em Santa Maria, RS, após 16 anos de aplicação de sete sistemas de culturas: (1) milho (Zea mays L.) + feijão-de-porco (Canavalia ensiformis DC)/soja (Glycine max (L.) Merr.)- MFP; (2) solo descoberto - SDES; (3) milho/pousio/soja - POU; (4) milho/azevém (Lolium multiflorum Lam.) + ervilhaca-comum (Vicia sativa)/soja - AZEV; (5) milho + mucuna-cinza (Stizolobium cinereum)/soja - MUC; (6) milho/nabo forrageiro (Raphanus sativus L. var. oleiferus Metzg.)/soja - NFO; e (7) campo nativo - CNA. A densidade do solo apresentou diferenças entre os tratamentos até a profundidade de 0,10 m, com o SDES evidenciando maiores valores. A porosidade total e a macroporosidade do solo apresentaram estreita relação entre si até 0,10 m de profundidade. O tratamento SDES apresentou maior resistência à penetração na camada superficial (até 0,03 m), e o NFO, nas profundidades de 0,16 e 0,18 m. Menores taxas de infiltração de água no solo foram verificadas nos tratamentos SDES e CNA, enquanto os demais se mantiveram constantemente acima destes e semelhantes entre si. O sistema de semeadura direta com uso de plantas de cobertura do solo mostrou-se eficiente em manter atributos físicos em condições favoráveis ao desenvolvimento vegetal, após longo período de utilização, ao mesmo tempo em que melhorou atributos como a taxa de infiltração de água.

Carbon stock and its compartments in a subtropical oxisol under long-term tillage and crop rotation systems

Soil organic matter (SOM) plays a crucial role in soil quality and can act as an atmospheric C-CO2 sink under conservationist management systems. This study aimed to evaluate the long-term effects (19 years) of tillage (CT-conventional tillage and NT-no tillage) and crop rotations (R0-monoculture system, R1-winter crop rotation, and R2- intensive crop rotation) on total, particulate and mineral-associated organic carbon (C) stocks of an originally degraded Red Oxisol in Cruz Alta, RS, Southern Brazil. The climate is humid subtropical Cfa 2a (Köppen classification), the mean annual precipitation 1,774 mm and mean annual temperature 19.2 ºC. The plots were divided into four segments, of which each was sampled in the layers 0-0.05, 0.05-0.10, 0.10-0.20, and 0.20-0.30 m. Sampling was performed manually by opening small trenches. The SOM pools were determined by physical fractionation. Soil C stocks had a linear relationship with annual crop C inputs, regardless of the tillage systems. Thus, soil disturbance had a minor effect on SOM turnover. In the 0-0.30 m layer, soil C sequestration ranged from 0 to 0.51 Mg ha-1 yr-1, using the CT R0 treatment as base-line; crop rotation systems had more influence on soil stock C than tillage systems. The mean C sequestration rate of the cropping systems was 0.13 Mg ha-1 yr-1 higher in NT than CT. This result was associated to the higher C input by crops due to the improvement in soil quality under long-term no-tillage. The particulate C fraction was a sensitive indicator of soil management quality, while mineral-associated organic C was the main pool of atmospheric C fixed in this clayey Oxisol. The C retention in this stable SOM fraction accounts for 81 and 89 % of total C sequestration in the treatments NT R1 and NT R2, respectively, in relation to the same cropping systems under CT. The highest C management index was observed in NT R2, confirming the capacity of this soil management practice to improve the soil C stock qualitatively in relation to CT R0. The results highlighted the diversification of crop rotation with cover crops as a crucial strategy for atmospheric C-CO2 sequestration and SOM quality improvement in highly weathered subtropical Oxisols.

Long-term C-CO2 emissions and carbon crop residue mineralization in an oxisol under different tillage and crop rotation systems

Soil C-CO2 emissions are sensitive indicators of management system impacts on soil organic matter (SOM). The main soil C-CO2 sources at the soil-plant interface are the decomposition of crop residues, SOM turnover, and respiration of roots and soil biota. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the impacts of tillage and cropping systems on long-term soil C-CO2 emissions and their relationship with carbon (C) mineralization of crop residues. A long-term experiment was conducted in a Red Oxisol in Cruz Alta, RS, Brazil, with subtropical climate Cfa (Köppen classification), mean annual precipitation of 1,774 mm and mean annual temperature of 19.2 ºC. Treatments consisted of two tillage systems: (a) conventional tillage (CT) and (b) no tillage (NT) in combination with three cropping systems: (a) R0- monoculture system (soybean/wheat), (b) R1- winter crop rotation (soybean/wheat/soybean/black oat), and (c) R2- intensive crop rotation (soybean/ black oat/soybean/black oat + common vetch/maize/oilseed radish/wheat). The soil C-CO2 efflux was measured every 14 days for two years (48 measurements), by trapping the CO2 in an alkaline solution. The soil gravimetric moisture in the 0-0.05 m layer was determined concomitantly with the C-CO2 efflux measurements. The crop residue C mineralization was evaluated with the mesh-bag method, with sampling 14, 28, 56, 84, 112, and 140 days after the beginning of the evaluation period for C measurements. Four C conservation indexes were used to assess the relation between C-CO2 efflux and soil C stock and its compartments. The crop residue C mineralization fit an exponential model in time. For black oat, wheat and maize residues, C mineralization was higher in CT than NT, while for soybean it was similar. Soil moisture was higher in NT than CT, mainly in the second year of evaluation. There was no difference in tillage systems for annual average C-CO2 emissions, but in some individual evaluations, differences between tillage systems were noticed for C-CO2 evolution. Soil C-CO2 effluxes followed a bi-modal pattern, with peaks in October/November and February/March. The highest emission was recorded in the summer and the lowest in the winter. The C-CO2 effluxes were weakly correlated to air temperature and not correlated to soil moisture. Based on the soil C conservation indexes investigated, NT associated to intensive crop rotation was more C conserving than CT with monoculture.

Effect of 15n-labeled hairy vetch and nitrogen fertilization on maize nutrition and yield under no-tillage¹

This study evaluated the effect of hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth) as cover crop on maize nutrition and yield under no tillage using isotope techniques. For this purpose, three experiments were carried out: 1) quantification of biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) in hairy vetch; 2) estimation of the N release rate from hairy vetch residues on the soil surface; 3) quantification of 15N recovery by maize from labeled hairy vetch under three rates of mineral N fertilization. This two-year field experiment was conducted on a sandy Acrisol (FAO soil classification) or Argissolo Vermelho distrófico arênico (Brazilian Soil Classification), at a mean annual temperature of 18 ºC and mean annual rainfall of 1686 mm. The experiment was arranged in a double split-plot factorial design with three replications. Two levels of hairy vetch residue (50 and 100 % of the aboveground biomass production) were distributed on the surface of the main plots (5 x 12 m). Maize in the sub-plots (5 x 4 m) was fertilized with three N rates (0, 60, and 120 kg ha-1 N), with urea as N source. The hairy vetch-derived N recovered by maize was evaluated in microplots (1.8 x 2.2 m). The BFN of hairy vetch was on average 72.4 %, which represents an annual input of 130 kg ha-1 of atmospheric N. The N release from hairy vetch residues was fast, with a release of about 90 % of total N within the first four weeks after cover crop management and soil residue application. The recovery of hairy vetch 15N by maize was low, with an average of 12.3 % at harvest. Although hairy vetch was not directly the main source of maize N nutrition, the crop yield reached 8.2 Mg ha-1, without mineral fertilization. There was an apparent synergism between hairy vetch residue application and the mineral N fertilization rate of 60 kg ha-1, confirming the benefits of the combination of organic and inorganic N sources for maize under no tillage.

Alterações nos atributos físicos de um latossolo vermelho sob plantio direto induzidas por diferentes tipos de escarificadores e o rendimento da soja

A compactação do solo, quando em níveis elevados, é um processo de difícil reversão sob sistema de plantio direto (SPD), especialmente em solos argilosos. Geralmente, a sua ocorrência em áreas comerciais de grãos é descontínua e restrita a áreas com histórico de pressões associadas ao trânsito intenso de máquinas agrícolas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar as alterações nos atributos físicos de um Latossolo Vermelho distrófico de textura argilosa (450 g kg-1) promovidas por dois tipos de escarificações sítio-específico e uma convencional (aleatória), bem como seus efeitos sobre o rendimento da soja. Para isso, selecionou-se no município de Victor Graeff, na região do planalto do RS, uma lavoura de 50,6 ha manejada sob SPD por longo prazo e, recentemente, com agricultura de precisão. O clima local é subtropical Cfa, com precipitação pluvial anual oscilando entre 1.500 e 1.750 mm, temperatura média de 20 ºC e altitude de 490 m. Com base nos mapas de rendimento de três safras anteriores, a área foi subdividida em três zonas de potencial produtivo. Na zona de baixo rendimento (ZB) foram implantados os seguintes tratamentos: (a) escarificação convencional com profundidade fixa de 0,30 m (EC); (b) escarificação sítio-específico com equipamento Fox® com profundidade fixa de 0,30 m (ESEF); (c) escarificação sítio-específico com equipamento Fox® com profundidade de atuação variável (0,10 a 0,30 m), em função da resistência máxima do solo à penetração (ESEV); e (d) controle sem escarificação (SE). A zona de alto rendimento (ZA) foi usada como referência para avaliar o efeito dos tratamentos no rendimento de grãos. Os tratamentos foram implantados em faixas paralelas de 100 x 20 m, seguindo o delineamento de blocos casualizados. Avaliaram-se, em três épocas, a densidade do solo, macroporosidade, microporosidade e porosidade total nas profundidades de 0,0-0,05, 0,05-0,10, 0,10-0,15 e 0,15-0,20 m, bem como a infiltração de água no solo. Os resultados da caracterização inicial dos atributos do solo por zona de rendimento evidenciaram maior densidade do solo e menor porosidade total, na profundidade de 0,15-0,20 m, na ZB em relação à ZA. Em todos os tratamentos com escarificação mecânica, observou-se, logo após o preparo, incremento da infiltração de água em relação ao SE, que aumentou em torno de quatro vezes nos tratamentos EC e ESEV em comparação a esse controle. No entanto, o efeito da escarificação, independentemente do tipo de escarificador, foi efêmero; transcorridos sete meses, verificou-se decréscimo na infiltração de água no solo, que não diferiu do tratamento controle. Entre os escarificadores investigados, o ESEV destacou-se pela manutenção da cobertura do solo em relação ao EC e proporcionou maior rendimento de soja. Contudo, sob condições de elevada precipitação pluvial não foi observado incremento no rendimento da soja nos tratamentos com escarificação mecânica, em relação ao tratamento controle (SE).

Optical crop sensor for variable-rate nitrogen fertilization in corn: i - plant nutrition and dry matter production

Variable-rate nitrogen fertilization (VRF) based on optical spectrometry sensors of crops is a technological innovation capable of improving the nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and mitigate environmental impacts. However, studies addressing fertilization based on crop sensors are still scarce in Brazilian agriculture. This study aims to evaluate the efficiency of an optical crop sensor to assess the nutritional status of corn and compare VRF with the standard strategy of traditional single-rate N fertilization (TSF) used by farmers. With this purpose, three experiments were conducted at different locations in Southern Brazil, in the growing seasons 2008/09 and 2010/11. The following crop properties were evaluated: above-ground dry matter production, nitrogen (N) content, N uptake, relative chlorophyll content (SPAD) reading, and a vegetation index measured by the optical sensor N-Sensor® ALS. The plants were evaluated in the stages V4, V6, V8, V10, V12 and at corn flowering. The experiments had a completely randomized design at three different sites that were analyzed separately. The vegetation index was directly related to above-ground dry matter production (R² = 0.91; p<0.0001), total N uptake (R² = 0.87; p<0.0001) and SPAD reading (R² = 0.63; p<0.0001) and inversely related to plant N content (R² = 0.53; p<0.0001). The efficiency of VRF for plant nutrition was influenced by the specific climatic conditions of each site. Therefore, the efficiency of the VRF strategy was similar to that of the standard farmer fertilizer strategy at sites 1 and 2. However, at site 3 where the climatic conditions were favorable for corn growth, the use of optical sensors to determine VRF resulted in a 12 % increase in N plant uptake in relation to the standard fertilization, indicating the potential of this technology to improve NUE.

Optical crop sensor for variable-rate nitrogen fertilization in corn: II - indices of fertilizer efficiency and corn yield

Generally, in tropical and subtropical agroecosystems, the efficiency of nitrogen (N) fertilization is low, inducing a temporal variability of crop yield, economic losses, and environmental impacts. Variable-rate N fertilization (VRF), based on optical spectrometry crop sensors, could increase the N use efficiency (NUE). The objective of this study was to evaluate the corn grain yield and N fertilization efficiency under VRF determined by an optical sensor in comparison to the traditional single-application N fertilization (TSF). With this purpose, three experiments with no-tillage corn were carried out in the 2008/09 and 2010/11 growing seasons on a Hapludox in South Brazil, in a completely randomized design, at three different sites that were analyzed separately. The following crop properties were evaluated: aboveground dry matter production and quantity of N uptake at corn flowering, grain yield, and vegetation index determined by an N-Sensor® ALS optical sensor. Across the sites, the corn N fertilizer had a positive effect on corn N uptake, resulting in increased corn dry matter and grain yield. However, N fertilization induced lower increases of corn grain yield at site 2, where there was a severe drought during the growing period. The VRF defined by the optical crop sensor increased the apparent N recovery (NRE) and agronomic efficiency of N (NAE) compared to the traditional fertilizer strategy. In the average of sites 1 and 3, which were not affected by drought, VRF promoted an increase of 28.0 and 41.3 % in NAE and NRE, respectively. Despite these results, no increases in corn grain yield were observed by the use of VRF compared to TSF.

Efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer applied at corn sowing in contrasting growing seasons in Paraguay

In order to select soil management practices that increase the nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) in agro-ecosystems, the different indices of agronomic fertilizer efficiency must be evaluated under varied weather conditions. This study assessed the NUE indices in no-till corn in southern Paraguay. Nitrogen fertilizer rates from 0 to 180 kg ha-1 were applied in a single application at corn sowing and the crop response investigated in two growing seasons (2010 and 2011). The experimental design was a randomized block with three replications. Based on the data of grain yield, dry matter, and N uptake, the following fertilizer indices were assessed: agronomic N-use efficiency (ANE), apparent N recovery efficiency (NRE), N physiological efficiency (NPE), partial factor productivity (PFP), and partial nutrient balance (PNB). The weather conditions varied largely during the experimental period; the rainfall distribution was favorable for crop growth in the first season and unfavorable in the second. The PFP and ANE indices, as expected, decreased with increasing N fertilizer rates. A general analysis of the N fertilizer indices in the first season showed that the maximum rate (180 kg ha-1) obtained the highest corn yield and also optimized the efficiency of NPE, NRE and ANE. In the second season, under water stress, the most efficient N fertilizer rate (60 kg ha-1) was three times lower than in the first season, indicating a strong influence of weather conditions on NUE. Considering that weather instability is typical for southern Paraguay, anticipated full N fertilization at corn sowing is not recommended due the temporal variability of the optimum N fertilizer rate needed to achieve high ANE.

Residual effect of soil tillage on water erosion from a Typic Paleudalf under long-term no-tillage and cropping systems

Soil erosion is one of the chief causes of agricultural land degradation. Practices of conservation agriculture, such as no-tillage and cover crops, are the key strategies of soil erosion control. In a long-term experiment on a Typic Paleudalf, we evaluated the temporal changes of soil loss and water runoff rates promoted by the transition from conventional to no-tillage systems in the treatments: bare soil (BS); grassland (GL); winter fallow (WF); intercrop maize and velvet bean (M+VB); intercrop maize and jack bean (M+JB); forage radish as winter cover crop (FR); and winter cover crop consortium ryegrass - common vetch (RG+CV). Intensive soil tillage induced higher soil losses and water runoff rates; these effects persisted for up to three years after the adoption of no-tillage. The planting of cover crops resulted in a faster decrease of soil and water loss rates in the first years after conversion from conventional to no-tillage than to winter fallow. The association of no-tillage with cover crops promoted progressive soil stabilization; after three years, soil losses were similar and water runoff was lower than from grassland soil. In the treatments of cropping systems with cover crops, soil losses were reduced by 99.7 and 66.7 %, compared to bare soil and winter fallow, while the water losses were reduced by 96.8 and 71.8 % in relation to the same treatments, respectively.

Resistência à penetração, eficiência de escarificadores mecânicos e produtividade da soja em Latossolo argiloso manejado sob plantio direto de longa duração

Frequentemente, a compactação limita a produtividade das culturas anuais em solos mecanizados, sendo a sua distribuição na lavoura regionalizada. Em área manejada sob sistema plantio direto (SPD) por longo prazo, foi investigada a variabilidade espacial da resistência à penetração (RP), a eficiência de escarificadores mecânicos e o seu efeito na produtividade da soja. O solo foi Latossolo Vermelho argiloso localizado no planalto do RS. O clima é subtropical Cfa com precipitação pluvial anual de 1.750 mm e temperatura média anual de 18,7 ºC. O delineamento experimental foi de blocos casualizados com quatro tratamentos e duas repetições. Os tratamentos foram implantados em faixas paralelas de 100 × 20 m. Os tratamentos investigados foram: escarificador sítio-específico com profundidade de atuação variada em razão da RP (ESEV); escarificador convencional (EC) com profundidade fixa; escarificador sítio-específico com profundidade fixa (ESEF); e testemunha - sem escarificação (SE). Para avaliar a RP, utilizou-se um penetrômetro digital com leituras georrefenciadas em malha de 50 × 50 m realizadas manualmente em duas épocas. A produtividade da soja foi obtida por meio de uma colhedora equipada com sensor de produtividade e antena receptora de sinal de GPS. A RP apresentou valores médios de 1,4 e 2,1 MPa, para leituras realizadas após o manejo da cultura de cobertura e após a colheita, respectivamente. A RP determinada após o manejo da cultura de cobertura e a produtividade da soja apresentaram baixa correlação (r² = -0,297; p<0,05). Os valores de RP de 3,0 e 5,0 MPa resultaram em decréscimos de aproximadamente 10 e 38 % na produtividade da soja, respectivamente. A escarificação mecânica, independentemente do equipamento utilizado, não incrementou a produtividade da soja em relação à testemunha. Esse resultado foi atribuído à RP da área a ser classificada, quando da instalação dos tratamentos, como baixa/moderada, à ocorrência de frequente precipitação pluvial e às favoráveis condições físico-hídricas proporcionadas pelo SPD de longa duração.

EFFECTS OF COMPACTION DUE TO MACHINERY TRAFFIC ON SOIL PORE CONFIGURATION

Soil compaction has been recognized as a severe problem in mechanized agriculture and has an influence on many soil properties and processes. Yet, there are few studies on the long-term effects of soil compaction, and the development of soil compaction has been shown through a limited number of soil parameters. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the persistence of soil compaction effects (three traffic treatments: T0, without traffic; T3, three tractor passes; and T5, five tractor passes) on pore system configuration, through static and dynamic determinations; and to determine changes in soil pore orientation due to soil compaction through measurement of hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil in samples taken vertically and horizontally. Traffic led to persistent changes in all the dynamic indicators studied (saturated hydraulic conductivity, K0; effective macro- and mesoporosity, εma and εme), with significantly lower values of K0, εma, and εme in the T5 treatment. The static indicators of bulk density (BD), derived total porosity (TP), and total macroporosity (θma) did not vary significantly among the treatments. This means that machine traffic did not produce persistent changes on these variables after two years. However, the orientation of the soil pore system was modified by traffic. Even in T0, there were greater changes in K0 measured in the samples taken vertically than horizontally, which was more related to the presence of vertical biopores, and to isotropy of K0 in the treatments with machine traffic. Overall, the results showed that dynamic indicators are more sensitive to the effects of compaction and that, in the future, static indicators should not be used as compaction indicators without being complemented by dynamic indicators.

Knowledge hierarchy and professional knowledge

The aim of this article is to substantiate, in the sociological point of view, the distinction between the social and cognitive processes that produce knowledge in knowledge abstract systems - KAS - to generate cultural inequality and the micro processes of knowledge usage, which build local and cultural knowledge from common sense. It is circumscribed to this aim a problematization of knowledge usage developed by middle class salaried professional groups, rich in cultural capital but without equivalent symbolical capital, in a capitalist society at risk. In order to achieve this goal, the classical contributions of Pierre Bourdieu, Boaventura Sousa Santos, Donald Schön and Basil Bernstein (among others) are taken as a basis regarding the limitation of critical and reflexive thinking and the virtues of professional knowledge to support an epistemology of professional practice.