An overview of invasive plants in Brazil

Alien plants are known to occur in Brazil since the 18th century when African grasses started to be recorded in pastures near Rio de Janeiro. In the beginning of the 19th century two royal decrees (July, 1809 and July, 1810) offered grants and tax exemption to everyone who would introduce plants of economic value. Nowadays, there are 117 plant species recognized as invasive or established and with invasive potential in Brazil and an unknown number of introduced plant species. Some of the most pervasive invasive species are Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. and Hedychium coronarium König in tropical ombrophilous forest, Hovenia dulcis Thunb. in subtropical ombrophilous forest and subtropical semi-deciduous forest, Pinus taeda L. and Pinus elliottii Engelm. in subtropical ombrophilous forest and steppe, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. in stepic-savanna, Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth in tropical and subtropical semi-deciduous forest, Melinis minutiflora P. Beauv. in the Brazilian savannas, and Eragrostis plana Nees in the steppe. The purpose of this article is to fill a knowledge gap on alien species that are invasive in Brazil and where they are invading by summarizing data obtained by joint efforts of the Hórus Institute for Environmental Conservation and Development, The Nature Conservancy (TNC), the Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN) invasive species thematic network (I3N), and the Brazilian Ministry of Environment (MMA) in the last six years.

A subtribo Cranichidinae Lindl. (Orchidaceae) no Estado do Paraná, Brasil

O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever as espécies da subtribo Cranichidinae ocorrentes no Paraná, devido a pouca informação disponível sobre sua flora. Oito espécies de Cranichidinae coletadas em 38 localidades foram encontradas a partir de análises de espécimes de herbários. Cranichidinae são ervas terrestres, com folhas sésseis a pecioladas, inflorescência racemosa e flores não ressupinadas, normalmente verdes ou brancas. Baskervilla Lindl., representada apenas por B. paranaensis (Kraenzl.) Schltr., possui labelo saciforme projetado para trás em bolsa arredondada e pétalas unguiculadas. Cranichis Sw. possui labelo cocleado, branco com manchas verdes, e o gênero é representado por C. muscosa Sw. e C. candida (Barb.Rodr.) Cogn.. Prescottia é o gênero mais diverso, com cinco espécies, P. densiflora (Brongn.) Lindl., P. lancifolia Lindl., P. oligantha (Sw.) Lindl., P. montana Barb. Rodr. e P. stachyodes (Sw.) Lindl., e pode ser reconhecido por possuir labelo calceolado com margens involutas. Cranichidinae ocorrem principalmente em Estepe Ombrófila e Floresta Ombrófila Densa. Baskervilla paranaensis, C. muscosa, P. lancifolia e P. montana são consideradas espécies ameaçadas no Paraná. Cranichis candida, Prescottia epiphyta Barb. Rodr., P. microrhiza Barb. Rodr., P. pubescens Barb. Rodr. e P. nivalis Barb. Rodr. tiveram seus lectótipos determinados. Prescottia epiphyta é considerada como sinônimo novo de P. lancifolia e P. microrhiza e P. nivalis sinônimos de P. oligantha.

Behavioral profiles displayed by rats in an elevated asymmetric plus-maze: effects of diazepam

When rats are exposed to unknown environments where novelty and fear-inducing characteristics are present (conflictive environments), some specific behaviors are induced and exploration is apparently modulated by fear. In our laboratory, a new type of plus-maze was designed as a model of conflictive exploration. The maze is composed of four arms with different geometrical characteristics, differing from each other by the presence or absence of walls. The degree of asymmetry was as follows: NW, no wall arm; SW, a single high wall present; HL, a low and a high wall present, and HH, two high walls present. The four arms were arranged at 90o angles and the apparatus was called the elevated asymmetric plus-maze (APM). The purpose of the present study was to assess the behavioral profile of rats exposed for a single time to the APM with or without treatment with benzodiazepine. Increasing doses of diazepam were injected intraperitoneally in several groups of male, 90-day-old Holtzman rats. Distilled water was injected in control animals. Thirty minutes after treatment all rats were exposed singly to a 5-min test in the APM. Diazepam induced a biphasic modification of exploration in the NW and SW arms. The increase in the exploration score was evident at low doses of diazepam (0.25-1.0 mg/kg body weight) and the decrease in exploration was found with the higher doses of diazepam (2.0-3.0 mg/kg body weight). Non-exploratory behaviors (permanency) were not affected by benzodiazepine treatment. In the HL arm, exploration was not modified but permanency was increased in a dose-dependent manner. In the HH arm, exploration and permanency were not affected. Results are compatible with the idea that exploration-processing mechanisms in conflictive environments are modulated by fear-processing mechanisms of the brain.

The influence of septal lesions on sodium and water retention induced by Walker 256 tumor

In the course of studies on the effects of septal area lesions on neuroimmunomodulation and Walker 256 tumor development, it was observed that tumor-induced sodium and water retention was less marked in lesioned than in non-lesioned rats. In the present study possible mechanisms involved in this phenomenon were investigated. The experiments were performed in septal-lesioned (LW; N = 15) and sham-operated (SW; N = 7) 8-week-old male Wistar rats, which received multifocal simultaneous subcutaneous (sc) inoculations of Walker 256 tumor cells about 30 days after the stereotaxic surgery. Control groups (no tumor, sham-operated food-restricted (SFR), N = 7) and lesioned food-restricted (LFR, N = 10) were subjected to a feeding pattern similar to that observed in tumor-bearing animals. Multifocal inoculation of Walker 256 tumor rapidly induces anorexia, which is paradoxically accompanied by an increase in body weight, as a result of renal Na+ and fluid retention. These effects of the tumor were also seen in LW rats, although the rise in fractional sodium balance during the early clinical period was significantly smaller than in SW rats (day 4: SW = 47.6 ± 6.4% and LW = 13.8 ± 5.2%; day 5: SW = 57.5 ± 3.5% and LW = 25.7 ± 4.8%; day 6: SW = 54.4 ± 3.8% and LW = 32.1 ± 4.4%; P<0.05), suggesting a temporary reduction in tumor-induced sodium retention. In contrast, urine output was significantly reduced in SW rats and increased in LW rats (LW up to -0.85 and SW up to 4.5 ml/100 g body weight), with no change in osmolar excretion. These temporary changes in the tumor's effects on LW rats may reflect a "reversal" of the secondary central antidiuretic response induced by the tumor (from antidiuretic to diuretic).

21-Hydroxylase deficiency in Brazil

We determined the frequency of large rearrangements and point mutations in 130 Brazilian patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency and correlated genotype with phenotype. The frequency of CYP21 deletions was lower (4.4%) than in most of the previous series described, whereas the frequency of large gene conversions was similar to the frequency reported in the literature (6.6%). The most frequent point mutations were I2 splice (41.8% in salt wasting - SW), I172N (32.6% in simple virilizing - SV) and V281L (40.2% in the late onset form - LO). The frequency of the nine most common point mutations was similar to that reported for other countries. The 93 fully genotyped patients were classified into 3 mutation groups based on the degree of enzymatic activity (A<2%, B @ 2%, C>20%). In group A, 62% of cases presented the SW form; in group B, 96% the SV form, and in group C, 88% the LO form. We diagnosed 80% of the affected alleles after screening for large rearrangements and 15 point mutations. To diagnose these remaining alleles we sequenced the CYP21 gene of one patient with the SV form and identified a heterozygous G->A transition in codon 424. This mutation leads to a substitution of glycine by serine in a conserved region and was also found in a compound heterozygous state in 4 other patients. The mutation G424S presented a linkage disequilibrium with CYP21P and C4A gene deletions and HLA DR17, suggesting a probable founder effect. Search for the G424S mutation in other populations will reveal if it is restricted to the Brazilian patients or if it has a wider ethnic distribution.

Phenotype and genotype correlation of the microconversion from the CYP21A1P to the CYP21A2 gene in congenital adrenal hyperplasia

Deficiency of 21-hydroxylase is the most common form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH-21OH). We determined by allele-specific PCR the frequency of microconversion in the CYP21A2 gene in 50 Brazilian patients with the classical (salt wasting: SW and simple virilizing: SV) forms and nonclassical (NC) form of CAH-21OH and correlated genotype with phenotype. Genotypes were classified into three mutation groups (A, B, and C) based on the amount of enzymatic activity in in vitro studies using adrenal cells. In 94 unrelated alleles, we diagnosed 76% of the affected alleles after screening for 7 microconversions. The most frequent point mutations observed in this series were I172N (19%), V281L (18%), and IVS2,A/C>G,-12 (15%). In the SW form, the most frequent mutation was IVS2,A/C>G,-12 (38%), in the SV form it was I172N (53%), and in the NC form it was V281L (57.7%). We observed a good correlation between genotype and phenotype. Discordance between genotype and phenotype was found in one SV patient with a mild mutation in one of the alleles (R356W/V281L). However, we cannot rule out the presence of an additional mutation in these alleles. We also observed a good correlation of genotype with 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone, testosterone, and androstenedione levels. The severity of external genitalia virilization correlated with the severity of mutation. In conclusion, the frequencies described in the present study did not differ from worldwide studies, including the Brazilian population. The few differences observed may reflect individual sample variations. This new Brazilian cohort study suggests the presence of new mutations in Brazilian patients with different forms of CAH-21OH.

Activity of liver microsomal enzymes during the chronic phase of murine schistosomiasis

The effects of schistosomiasis on microsomal enzymes were studied on post-infection day 90 when accumulated damage and fibrosis are most intense but granulomatous reaction around the eggs harbored in the liver is smaller than during the earlier phases. Swiss Webster (SW) and DBA/2 mice of either sex (N = 12 per sex per group) were infected with 100 Schistosoma mansoni cercariae on postnatal day 10 and killed on post-infection day 90. Cytochrome P-450 (CYP) concentration and alkoxyresorufin-O-dealkylases (EROD, MROD, BROD, and PROD), p-nitrophenol-hydroxylase (PNPH), coumarin-7-hydroxylase (COH), and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) activities were measured in hepatic microsomes. Age-matched mice of the same sex and strain were used as controls. In S. mansoni-infected mice, CYP1A- and 2B-mediated activities (control = 100%) were reduced in SW (EROD: male (M) 36%, female (F) 38%; MROD: M 38%, F 39%; BROD: M 46%, F 19%; PROD: M 50%, F 28%) and DBA/2 mice (EROD: M 64%, F 58%; MROD: M 60%; BROD: F 49%; PROD: M 73%) while PNPH (CYP2E1) was decreased in SW (M 31%, F 38%) but not in DBA/2 mice. COH did not differ between infected and control DBA/2 and UGT, a phase-2 enzyme, was not altered by infection. In conclusion, chronic S. mansoni infection reduced total CYP content and all CYP-mediated activities evaluated in SW mice, including those catalyzed by CYP2E1 (PNPH), CYP1A (EROD, MROD) and 2B (BROD, PROD). In DBA/2 mice, however, CYP2A5- and 2E1-mediated activities remained unchanged while total CYP content and activities mediated by other CYP isoforms were depressed during chronic schistosomiasis.

Changes in the physicochemical and microbiological properties of frozen araça pulp during storage

Araça belongs to the Myrtaceae family and is popularly known as araçá-comum, araçá-azedo, or araçá-do-campo. Frozen fruit pulp is of great importance for the food industry, which can produce it at the time of harvest, store it, and use it according to the demand of the consumer market and/or as an ingredient in the formulation of products such as yogurt, candies, and ice creams among others. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physical, chemical, and microbiological stability of frozen araça pulp during 12 months of frozen storage. It was observed that the levels of moisture (90.55-88.75%), ash (0.34-0.26%) total soluble sugars (7.11-6.62%), sucrose (3.55-1.39%), soluble pectin (0.24-0.23%), total pectin (0.5-0.46%), pH (3.82-2.31%), organic acids (698.12-122.25 µg.g-1 citric acid), and phenolic compounds (6.22-0.00 mg GAE.100 g-1) decreased during storage, whereas the levels of protein (0.61-0.83%), lipids (0.14-0.38%), total carbohydrates (8.36-9.78%), calorific value (37.14-45.86 kcal.100 g-1), reducing sugars (3.51-5.21%), soluble solids (5.17-6.0%), total antioxidant capacity (6.89-35.13%), and color parameters (L*49.75-50.67; a*0.79-1.82 and b*22.5-25.19) increased over the one-year storage period. According to the chemical and microbiological parameters assessed, the product can be stored for 12 months without loss of quality with addition of citric acid as a preservative.

Classificação de sementes florestais quanto ao comportamento no armazenamento

Este trabalho teve como objetivos realizar um levantamento sobre a classificação de sementes de espécies florestais quanto ao comportamento durante o armazenamento e verificar a relação da classificação proposta com os grupos ecológicos das mesmas. Foram estudadas 39 espécies florestais presentes em remanescentes de matas ciliares na bacia do Alto e Médio Rio Grande, MG. A viabilidade das sementes e o grau de umidade foram obtidos para as sementes recém-beneficiadas; sementes recém-beneficiadas armazenadas em embalagem semipermeável a 5ºC durante 90 dias; e para sementes secas antes e após o armazenamento em embalagem impermeável sob temperaturas de 5ºC e -18ºC durante 90 dias. A análise estatística foi realizada comparando-se, por sobreposição, os intervalos de confiança das médias de porcentagem de germinação para cada espécie. As sementes das diferentes espécies foram classificadas como ortodoxas ou recalcitrantes durante o armazenamento. As sementes classificadas como ortodoxas são as que pertencem as espécies: Alchornea triplinervea, Anadenanthera colubrina, Aspidosperma cylindrocarpon, Aspidosperma polyneuron, Bowdichia virgilioides, Ceiba speciosa, Hymenaea courbaril, Lafoensia pacari, Lecythis pisonis, Lithraea molleoides, Maclura tinctoria, Myroxylon peruiferum, Myrsine umbellata, Rudgea viburnoides, Schinus terebinthifolius, Solanum granuloso-leprosum, Tabebuia crysotricha; e recalcitrantes as demais: Calophyllum brasiliense, Calyptranthes lucida, Cupania vernalis, Eugenia handroana, e Talauma ovata. O comportamento ortodoxo foi verificado para sementes de espécies pioneiras, clímax exigentes de luz para o crescimento da plântula e para espécies clímax tolerantes à sombra. Sementes classificadas como recalcitrantes foram encontradas para espécies clímax tolerantes à sombra e clímax exigentes de luz.