Effect of compaction on microbial activity and carbon and nitrogen transformations in two oxisols with different mineralogy

The use of machinery in agricultural and forest management activities frequently increases soil compaction, resulting in greater soil density and microporosity, which in turn reduces hydraulic conductivity and O2 and CO2 diffusion rates, among other negative effects. Thus, soil compaction has the potential to affect soil microbial activity and the processes involved in organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling. This study was carried out under controlled conditions to evaluate the effect of soil compaction on microbial activity and carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) mineralization. Two Oxisols with different mineralogy were utilized: a clayey oxidic-gibbsitic Typic Acrustox and a clayey kaolinitic Xantic Haplustox (Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo ácrico - LVA, and Latossolo Amarelo distrófico - LA, respectively, in the Brazil Soil Classification System). Eight treatments (compaction levels) were assessed for each soil type in a complete block design, with six repetitions. The experimental unit consisted of PVC rings (height 6 cm, internal diameter 4.55 cm, volume 97.6 cm³). The PVC rings were filled with enough soil mass to reach a final density of 1.05 and 1.10 kg dm-3, respectively, in the LVA and LA. Then the soil samples were wetted (0.20 kg kg-1 = 80 % of field capacity) and compacted by a hydraulic press at pressures of 0, 60, 120, 240, 360, 540, 720 and 900 kPa. After soil compression the new bulk density was calculated according to the new volume occupied by the soil. Subsequently each PVC ring was placed within a 1 L plastic pot which was then tightly closed. The soils were incubated under aerobic conditions for 35 days and the basal respiration rate (CO2-C production) was estimated in the last two weeks. After the incubation period, the following soil chemical and microbiological properties were detremined: soil microbial biomass C (C MIC), total soil organic C (TOC), total N, and mineral N (NH4+-N and NO3--N). After that, mineral N, organic N and the rate of net N mineralization was calculated. Soil compaction increased NH4+-N and net N mineralization in both, LVA and LA, and NO3--N in the LVA; diminished the rate of TOC loss in both soils and the concentration of NO3--N in the LA and CO2-C in the LVA. It also decreased the C MIC at higher compaction levels in the LA. Thus, soil compaction decreases the TOC turnover probably due to increased physical protection of soil organic matter and lower aerobic microbial activity. Therefore, it is possible to conclude that under controlled conditions, the oxidic-gibbsitic Oxisol (LVA) was more susceptible to the effects of high compaction than the kaolinitic (LA) as far as organic matter cycling is concerned; and compaction pressures above 540 kPa reduced the total and organic nitrogen in the kaolinitic soil (LA), which was attributed to gaseous N losses.

Absorção de nutrientes e crescimento do arroz com suprimento combinado de amônio e nitrato¹

O arroz é classificado como uma planta tolerante ao amônio (NH4+) devido à predominância desse íon nos solos alagados. Entretanto, nas regiões oxidadas do solo e da rizosfera do arroz pode haver a formação de nitrato (NO3-) e esta se tornar importante fonte de N para cultura. Este trabalho foi conduzido com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito de diferentes proporções entre os íons NH4+ e NO3- no desenvolvimento do arroz em solução nutritiva. O experimento foi realizado em casa de vegetação no período de janeiro a fevereiro de 2008, em solução nutritiva com as seguintes proporções entre NH4+ e NO3-: 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 e 0:100 na concentração de 5,0 mmol L-1 de N. Foi cultivado o genótipo IRGA 417 e avaliado o rendimento de biomassa, os teores de N, K, Ca e Mg na biomassa e na seiva do xilema. Houve toxidez por NH4+ nas proporções de 100:0 e 75:25 e por NO3- nas proporções de 25:75 e 0:100. Na proporção de 50:50 as plantas se desenvolveram normalmente. O suprimento combinado de NH4+ e NO3- aumentou a produção de biomassa em relação ao NH4+ e ao NO3- supridos isoladamente. O NH 4+ na solução reduziu os teores de Ca e Mg na biomassa, porém não influenciou o teor de N e o de K. Já na seiva do xilema houve redução nos teores de K, Ca e Mg, indicando que o NH4+ influenciou na absorção desses cátions. A quantidade total absorvida de N, K, Mg e Ca foi maior com o suprimento combinado de NH4+ e NO3-, indicando que, além de promover melhor desenvolvimento das plantas de arroz, aumenta a eficiência de absorção de nutrientes em relação ao suprimento isolado das duas formas de N.

Erosão hídrica em campo nativo sob diversos manejos: perdas de água e solo e de fósforo, potássio e amônio na água de enxurrada

Os campos nativos do sul do Brasil são utilizados para o pastejo de bovinos e ovinos. Após o verão, no início da estação fria, a fitomassa excedente do pastejo seca, sendo comum sua queima para facilitar o rebrote da pastagem na primavera. No entanto, a queima da fitomassa mineraliza nutrientes e deixa o solo descoberto, potencializando a erosão hídrica. Este trabalho teve o objetivo de quantificar as perdas totais de água e solo e os teores de P, K e NH4+ na água da enxurrada, em campo nativo sobre um Latossolo Bruno aluminoférrico típico. Foram estudados os tratamentos: campo nativo sem queima e sem adubo; campo nativo sem queima e com superfosfato triplo; campo nativo com queima e sem adubo; e campo nativo com queima e com superfosfato triplo. Sobre as parcelas, com 11 m de comprimento, na direção do declive, e 3,5 m de largura, aplicou-se uma chuva simulada com intensidade de 75 mm h-1 e duração de 3 h. A queima influenciou a erosão hídrica e as perdas de nutrientes. A queima da fitomassa do campo nativo diminuiu os tempos de início e pico da enxurrada e a infiltração de água no solo, bem como aumentou a taxa máxima de enxurrada, as perdas de água e solo por erosão hídrica e os teores e as perdas totais de P, K e NH4+ na água de enxurrada, em relação à ausência da queima. A concentração de sedimentos na enxurrada foi maior no tratamento com queima da fitomassa do que no sem queima. O maior e o menor valor da concentração de sedimentos ocorreram em menor tempo de duração do escoamento superficial no tratamento com queima do que no tratamento sem queima, contribuindo para que a perda total de solo fosse 8,9 vezes maior com a queima do que sem a queima do campo. O teor e a perda total de P na água da enxurrada foram maiores no tratamento com adubo fosfatado do que no tratamento sem adubo, tanto no tratamento com queima da fitomassa quanto no sem queima. Para o K e o NH4+, os teores e as perdas totais foram maiores no tratamento com queima do que no sem queima. O modelo exponencial do tipo y = ae-bx ajustou-se aos teores de P, K e NH4+ na água da enxurrada, em relação ao tempo de ocorrência do escoamento superficial (p < 0,01).

Brachiaria species affecting soil nitrification

Nitrification can lead to substantial losses of the applied N through nitrate leaching and N2O emission. The regulation of nitrification may be a strategy to improve fertilizer N recovery and increase its agronomic efficiency. The objective of this study was to evaluate the inhibiting capacity of nitrification in soil by Brachiaria species. The greenhouse experiment was conducted using pots with 10 dm³ of a Red Latosol sample. The treatments consisted of the cultivation of three forage species (Brachiaria brizantha, B. ruziziensis and B. decumbens) and four n rates (0, 100, 200, and 300 mg/pot), and the control (without plants). In the absence of the forage plants, all N fertilization levels raised the N-NO3- soil levels, as a result of nitrification. The mineralization of organic matter supplied much of the N requirement of the forage plants and nitrification was influenced in the rhizosphere of B. brizantha; however, this effect was not high enough to alter the N-NH4+ level in the total soil volume of the pot.

Nitrate role in basic cation leaching under no-till

Especially under no-tillage, subsuface soil acidity has been a problem, because it depends on base leaching, which has been associated with the presence of low molecular weigth organic acids and companion anions. The objective of this study was to evaluate exchangeable base cation leaching as affected by surface liming along with annual urea side-dressing of maize and upland rice. Treatments consisted of four lime rates (0, 1500, 3000, and 6000 kg ha-1) combined with four nitrogen rates (0, 50, 100, and 150 kg ha-1) applied to maize (Zea mays) and upland rice (Oryza sativa), in two consecutive years. Maize was planted in December, three months after liming. In September of the following year, pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) was planted without fertilization and desiccated 86 days after plant emergence. Afterwards, upland rice was grown. Immediately after upland rice harvest, 18 months after surface liming, pH and N-NO3-, N-NH4+, K, Ca, and Mg levels were evaluated in soil samples taken from the layers 0-5, 5-10, 10-20 and 20-40 cm. Higher maize yields were obtained at higher N rates and 3000 kg ha-1 lime. Better results for upland rice and pearl millet yields were also obtained with this lime rate, irrespective of N levels. The vertical mobility of K, Ca and Mg was higher in the soil profiles with N fertilization. Surface liming increased pH in the upper soil layers causing intense nitrate production, which was leached along with the base cations.

Dynamics of ammonium and pH in the solution of soils with different salinity levels, growing irrigated rice

Rice in Rio Grande do Sul State is grown mostly under flooding, which induces a series of chemical, physical and biological changes in the root environment. These changes, combined with the presence of rice plants, affect the availability of exchangeable ammonium (NH4+) and pH of soil solution, whereas the dynamics of both variables can be influenced by soil salinity, a common problem in the coastal region. This study was conducted to evaluate the dynamics of exchangeable NH4+ and pH in the soil solution, and their relation in the solution of Albaqualf soils with different salinity levels, under rice. Four field experiments were conducted with soils with exchangeable Na percentage (ESP) of 5.6, 9.0, 21.2, and 32.7 %. Prior to flooding, soil solution collectors were installed at depths of 5, 10 and 20 cm. The soil solution was collected weekly, from 7 to 91 days after flooding (DAF), to analyze exchangeable NH4+ and pH in the samples. Plant tissue was sampled 77 DAF, to determine N uptake and estimate the contribution of other N forms to rice nutrition. The content of exchangeable NH4+ decreased over time at all sites and depths, with a more pronounced reduction in soils with lower salinity levels, reaching values close to zero. A possible contribution of non-exchangeable NH4+ forms and N from soil organic matter to rice nutrition was observed. Soil pH decreased with time in soils with ESP 5.6 and 9.0 %, being positively correlated with the decreasing NH4+ levels at these sites.

Crescimento e produção do arroz sob diferentes proporções de Nitrato e de Amônio

As plantas diferem quanto à preferência pela forma de N mineral a ser absorvida e metabolizada. No arroz, essa preferência parece variar com o estádio de crescimento da cultura. O presente trabalho objetivou avaliar o efeito de proporções de N-nitrato e de N-amônio sobre o crescimento e a produção de grãos das cultivares de arroz de terras altas BRS Colosso e BRSMG Conai em solução nutritiva, em dois experimentos, um com cada cultivar. Em ambos os experimentos o delineamento utilizado foi o inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetições, em esquema de parcelas subdivididas no tempo. As parcelas primárias foram constituídas por cinco relações N-nitrato (N-NO3-):N-amônio (N-NH4+) (100:00, 80:20, 60:40, 50:50 e 40:60), e as subparcelas, por estádios de crescimento do arroz (início do perfilhamento, diferenciação do primórdio floral e início da emissão de panículas). O fornecimento de N na forma exclusiva de nitrato, ou de amônio em maiores proporções que o nitrato, diminuiu a produção de matéria seca das cultivares de arroz, principalmente na época da emissão de panículas, alterando também a produção de grãos. A máxima produção de matéria seca da parte aérea das cultivares de arroz ocorreu para proporções de nitrato entre 58 e 68 %. Para a produção de grãos, os máximos foram obtidos com proporções de nitrato entre 75 e 78 %. A causa do menor crescimento e da produção das cultivares de arroz quando se forneceu apenas nitrato foi o acúmulo excessivo dessa forma nos tecidos das plantas na fase inicial do seu crescimento, devido à baixa atividade da redutase do nitrato nessa fase. Entretanto, houve efeito prejudicial também pelo excesso de amônio, quando este se encontrava em maiores proporções que o nitrato na solução nutritiva.

Incubation methods for assessing mineralizable nitrogen in soils under sugarcane

Considering nitrogen mineralization (N) of soil organic matter is a key aspect for the efficient management of N fertilizers in agricultural systems. Long-term aerobic incubation is the standard technique for calibrating the chemical extraction methods used to estimate the potentially mineralizable N in soil. However, the technique is laborious, expensive and time-consuming. In this context, the aims of this study were to determine the amount of soil mineralizable N in the 0-60 cm layer and to evaluate the use of short-term anaerobic incubation instead of long-term aerobic incubation for the estimation of net N mineralization rates in soils under sugarcane. Five soils from areas without previous N fertilization were used in the layers 0-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm. Soil samples were aerobically incubated at 35 ºC for 32 weeks or anaerobically incubated (waterlogged) at 40 ºC for seven days to determine the net soil N mineralization. The sand, silt and clay contents were highly correlated with the indexes used for predicting mineralizable N. The 0-40 cm layer was the best sampling depth for the estimation of soil mineralizable N, while in the 40-60 cm layer net N mineralization was low in both incubation procedures. Anaerobic incubation provided reliable estimates of mineralizable N in the soil that correlated well with the indexes obtained using aerobic incubation. The inclusion of the pre-existing NH4+-N content improved the reliability of the estimate of mineralizable N obtained using anaerobic incubation.

Mineralização de nitrogênio em latossolos adubados com resíduos orgânicos

A taxa de mineralização do nitrogênio (N) varia de um resíduo orgânico para outro, evidenciando-se dependente da sua composição química e interação do material orgânico com o solo. Este estudo foi realizado com o objetivo de avaliar a dinâmica de mineralização de N de resíduos orgânicos incubados em Latossolos. O experimento foi conduzido no período de julho de 2007 a abril de 2008, sendo incubadas amostras de estercos, lodos, compostos, substrato e turfa em areia lavada, Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo (LVA) e Latossolo Vermelho distroférrico (LVdf), com 240 e 670 g kg-1 de argila, respectivamente. O N mineralizado foi avaliado medindo-se os teores de N-NH4+ e N-NO3- em lixiviados coletados aos 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240 e 270 dias de incubação. A mineralização de N ocorreu a maiores taxas nos períodos iniciais de incubação. O N mineralizado (33 a 199,2 mg kg-1) após 270 dias de incubação é regulado pelos teores de N total e de carbono solúvel em água dos resíduos orgânicos. Independentemente do meio utilizado para incubação, os estercos de galinha e de codorna propiciaram os maiores teores de N mineralizado nos Latossolos. À exceção dos estercos de galinha e codorna, há imobilização líquida de N no LVA; mineralização líquida de N é verificada no LVdf, para todos os resíduos orgânicos. Em relação às formas de N disponibilizadas pelos resíduos, predomina o N-nitrato, sendo a proporção N-nítrico/N-amoniacal dependente da mistura solo-resíduo estudada.

Rice straw incorporated just before soil flooding increases acetic acid formation and decreases available nitrogen

Incorporation of rice straw into the soil just before flooding for water-seeded rice can immobilize mineral nitrogen (N) and lead to the production of acetic acid harmful to the rice seedlings, which negatively affects grain yield. This study aimed to evaluate the formation of organic acids and variation in pH and to quantify the mineral N concentration in the soil as a function of different times of incorporation of rice straw or of ashes from burning the straw before flooding. The experiment was carried out in a greenhouse using an Inceptisol (Typic Haplaquept) soil. The treatments were as follows: control (no straw or ash); incorporation of ashes from previous straw burning; rice straw incorporated to drained soil 60 days before flooding; straw incorporated 30 days before flooding; straw incorporated 15 days before flooding and straw incorporated on the day of flooding. Experimental units were plastic buckets with 6.0 kg of soil. The buckets remained flooded throughout the trial period without rice plants. Soil samples were collected every seven days, beginning one day before flooding until the 13th week of flooding for determination of mineral N- ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-). Soil solution pH and concentration of organic acids (acetic, propionic and butyric) were determined. All NO3- there was before flooding was lost in approximately two weeks of flooding, in all treatments. There was sigmoidal behavior for NH4+ formation in all treatments, i.e., ammonium ion concentration began to rise shortly after soil flooding, slightly decreased and then went up again. On the 91st day of flooding, the NH4+ concentrations in soil was 56 mg kg-1 in the control treatment, 72 mg kg-1 for the 60-day treatment, 73 mg kg-1 for the 30-day treatment and 53 mg kg-1 for the ash incorporation treatment. These ammonium concentrations correspond to 84, 108, 110 and 80 kg ha-1 of N-NH4+, respectively. When the straw was incorporated on the day of flooding or 15 days before, the concentration of N-NH4+ in the soil was 28 and 54 mg kg-1, equivalent to an accumulation of 42 and 81 kg ha-1 of N-NH4+, respectively. There was formation of acetic acid in which toxic concentrations were reached (7.2 mmol L-1) on the 15th day of flooding only for the treatment with straw incorporated on the day of flooding. The pH of the soil solution of all the treatments increased after flooding and this increase was faster in the treatments with incorporation of straw, followed by the ash treatment and then the control. After 60 days of flooding, however, the pH values were around 6.5 for all treatments, except for the control, which reached a pH of 6.3. Rice straw should be incorporated into the soil at least 30 days before flooding; otherwise, it may immobilize part of the mineral N and produce acetic acid in concentrations toxic to rice seedlings.

Quantification of permanent and variable charges in reference soils of the State of Pernambuco, Brazil

The electrical charges in soil particles are divided into structural or permanent charges and variable charges. Permanent charges develop on the soil particle surface by isomorphic substitution. Variable charges arise from dissociation and association of protons (H+), protonation or deprotonation, and specific adsorption of cations and anions. The aim of this study was to quantify the permanent charges and variable charges of Reference Soils of the State of Pernambuco, Brazil. To do so, 24 subsurface profiles from different regions (nine in the Zona da Mata, eight in the Agreste, and seven in the Sertão) were sampled, representing approximately 80 % of the total area of the state. Measurements were performed using cesium chloride solution. Determination was made of the permanent charges and the charges in regard to the hydroxyl functional groups through selective ion exchange of Cs+ by Li+ and Cs+ by NH4+, respectively. All the soils analyzed exhibited variable cation exchange capacity, with proportions from 0.16 to 0.60 and an average of 0.40 when related to total cation exchange capacity.

Solução do Solo e Análise de Componentes Principais para Monitoramento da Aplicação de Lodo de Esgoto

O uso agrícola do lodo é uma alternativa viável para a reciclagem de nutrientes, embora haja certa preocupação com o aumento de espécies químicas solúveis originadas da mineralização da fração orgânica. Assim, para conhecer a disponibilidade de nutrientes e o risco de contaminação do solo e da água, o estudo da solução do solo é uma ferramenta valiosa. Nesses estudos, o número de variáveis utilizadas ultrapassa facilmente uma dezena, e ferramentas de análise exploratória, como a análise de componentes principais (ACP), revelam a existência ou não de amostras anômalas, de relações entre as variáveis medidas e sua contribuição relativa e de relações ou agrupamentos entre amostras. O objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar variáveis relacionadas com a solução do solo e alteradas, em razão do uso do lodo de esgoto e da adubação mineral, de forma a complementar os procedimentos para monitoramento/avaliação de áreas que recebem esse tipo de resíduo. A composição da solução do solo de uma área que recebeu lodo de esgoto por sete anos consecutivos foi estudada dos 22 aos 46 meses após a sua última aplicação. Com a solução do solo foi possível, por meio da ACP, distinguir as áreas em função da adubação aplicada. Após quatro anos da interrupção das aplicações sucessivas de lodo de esgoto, não verificou-se concentração apreciável de metais na solução do solo, embora ainda seja possível identificar traços da mineralização do resíduo. As variáveis pH, Mn2+, COD, SO4(2-), NO3- e NH4+ na solução do solo podem ser utilizadas no monitoramento de áreas tratadas com lodo de esgoto.

Electrical Conductivity and Chemical Composition of Soil Solution: Comparison of Solution Samplers in Tropical Soils

ABSTRACT Soil solution samplers may have the same working principle, but they differ in relation to chemical and physical characteristics, cost and handling, and these aspects exert influence on the chemical composition of the soil solution obtained. This study was carried out to evaluate, over time, the chemical composition of solutions extracted by Suolo Acqua, with the hydrophilic membrane (HM) as a standard, using soils with contrasting characteristics, and to determine the relationship between electrical conductivity (EC) and concentration of ions and pH of soil solution samples. This study was carried out under laboratory conditions, using three soils samples with different clay and organic matter (OM) contents. Soil solution contents of F&#8722;, Cl&#8722;, NO&#8722;3, Br&#8722;, SO42&#8722;, Na+, NH4+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, were analyzed, as well as inorganic, organic, and total C contents, pH, and EC, in four successive sampling times. Soil solution chemical composition extracted by the Suolo Acqua sampler is similar to that collected by the HM, but the Suolo Acqua extracted more Na+ and soluble organic C than the HM solution. Solution EC, cation and anion concentrations, and soluble C levels are higher in the soil with greater clay and OM contents (Latossolo and Cambissolo in this case). Soil solution composition varied over time, with considerable changes in pH, EC, and nutrient concentrations, especially associated with soil OM. Thus, single and isolated sampling of the soil solution must be avoided, otherwise composition of the soil solution may not be correctly evaluated. Soil solution EC was regulated by pH, as well as the sum of cation and anion concentrations, and the C contents determined in the soil liquid phase.

Plant architecture of Paspalum vaginatum schwartz modified by nitrate and ammonium nutrition

Paspalum vaginatum Schwartz plants were grown under greenhouse conditions in a continuous-flow hydroponic culture, containing NO3- or NH4+or NH4NO3 as nitrogen source. After 30 days, the size of aerial biomass and root system decreased significantly when plants were supplied with NH4+as exclusive nitrogen source. Compared to NO3- treatment, reducing and non-reducing sugars were decreasing together with a significant increase in amino acids content. NH4+-nutrition caused tillers to grow toward an orthogravitropic position (average angle of 68&#176; with respect to the horizontal), and with NO3--nutrition, tillers tended to become diagravitropic (average angle of 23&#176;). With NH4NO3 all the parameters measured had values in between those of the other two sources. Thus, the morphologic differences among plants growing in NO3- or NH4+ nutrition confirm the hypothesis that nitrogen source determines the growth habit of tillers in P. vaginatum by modulating the endogenous levels of reducing-non-reducing sugars.

Mineralização de nitrogênio e enxofre em solos brasileiros sob influência da calagem e fósforo

O presente estudo, desenvolvido em laboratório no período de outubro de 1995 a janeiro de 1996, objetivou avaliar a influência da calagem e fósforo (P) sobre a mineralização de nitrogênio (N) e enxofre (S) em sete solos, com ampla variabilidade nas características químicas e físicas. Os solos (200 g), numa etapa anterior à aplicação de P (KH2PO4 p.a.), foram pré-incubados por sete dias com CaCO3p.a.Aseguir,foramincubadosnovamente,pormais70dias.OsteoresdeN (NO3- + NH4+) e S (SO4(2-)) mineralizados em condições aeróbias foram avaliados a cada catorze dias, e notou-se neles uma dinâmica diferenciada, com o N mineral apresentando maior variação do que o sulfato. As quantidades de N mineralizado não se mostraram dependentes da acidez do solo, porém notou-se uma aceleração na mineralização do N com a calagem do Glei Húmico e do Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo coletado no Rio de Janeiro. Ao contrário, a mineralização de S no Glei Pouco Húmico e no Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo coletado no Rio de Janeiro foi influenciada pela correção da acidez do solo, que promoveu maior disponibilidade de sulfato nesses solos. Os teores de N e S mineralizados não foram influenciados pelos níveis de P disponível. A maior prevalência de nitrato e sulfato em alguns dos solos calcariados implica maior cuidado no estabelecimento da época de aplicação de corretivo.