Investigation of Copy Number Variation in Children with Conotruncal Heart Defects

Background:Congenital heart defects (CHD) are the most prevalent group of structural abnormalities at birth and one of the main causes of infant morbidity and mortality. Studies have shown a contribution of the copy number variation in the genesis of cardiac malformations.Objectives:Investigate gene copy number variation (CNV) in children with conotruncal heart defect.Methods:Multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) was performed in 39 patients with conotruncal heart defect. Clinical and laboratory assessments were conducted in all patients. The parents of the probands who presented abnormal findings were also investigated.Results:Gene copy number variation was detected in 7/39 patients: 22q11.2 deletion, 22q11.2 duplication, 15q11.2 duplication, 20p12.2 duplication, 19p deletion, 15q and 8p23.2 duplication with 10p12.31 duplication. The clinical characteristics were consistent with those reported in the literature associated with the encountered microdeletion/microduplication. None of these changes was inherited from the parents.Conclusions:Our results demonstrate that the technique of MLPA is useful in the investigation of microdeletions and microduplications in conotruncal congenital heart defects. Early diagnosis of the copy number variation in patients with congenital heart defect assists in the prevention of morbidity and decreased mortality in these patients.

Estudos experimentais sôbre a origem do milho

1) It may seem rather strange that, in spite of the efforts of a considerable number of scientists, the problem of the origin of indian corn or maize still has remained an open question. There are no fossil remains or archaeological relics except those which are quite identical with types still existing. (Fig. 1). The main difficulty in finding the wild ancestor- which may still exist - results from the fact that it has been somewhat difficult to decide what it should be like and also where to look for it. 2) There is no need to discuss the literature since an excellent review has recently been published by MANGELSDORF and REEVES (1939). It may be sufficient to state that there are basically two hypotheses, that of ST. HILAIRE (1829) who considered Brazilian pod corn as the nearest relative of wild corn still existing, and that of ASCHERSON (1875) who considered Euchlaena from Central America as the wild ancestor of corn. Later hypotheses represent or variants of these two hypotheses or of other concepts, howewer generally with neither disproving their predecessors nor showing why the new hypotheses were better than the older ones. Since nearly all possible combinations of ideas have thus been put forward, it har- dly seems possible to find something theoretically new, while it is essential first to produce new facts. 3) The studies about the origin of maize received a new impulse from MANGELSDORF and REEVES'S experimental work on both Zea-Tripsacum and Zea-Euchlaena hybrids. Independently I started experiments in 1937 with the hope that new results might be obtained when using South American material. Having lost priority in some respects I decided to withold publication untill now, when I can put forward more concise ideas about the origin of maize, based on a new experimental reconstruction of the "wild type". 4) The two main aspects of MANGELSDORF and REEVES hypothesis are discussed. We agree with the authors that ST. HILAIRE's theory is probably correct in so far as the tunicata gene is a wild type relic gene, but cannot accept the reconstruction of wild corn as a homozygous pod corn with a hermaphroditic tassel. As shown experimentally (Fig. 2-3) these tassels have their central spike transformed into a terminal, many rowed ear with a flexible rachis, while possessing at the same time the lateral ear. Thus no explanation is given of the origin of the corn ear, which is the main feature of cultivated corn (BRIEGER, 1943). The second part of the hypothesis referring to the origin of Euchlaena from corn, inverting thus ASCHERSON's theory, cannot be accepted for several reasons, stated in some detail. The data at hand justify only the conclusion that both genera, Euchlaena and Zea, are related, and there is as little proof for considering the former as ancestor of the latter as there is for the new inverse theory. 5) The analysis of indigenous corn, which will be published in detail by BRIEGER and CUTLER, showed several very primitive characters, but no type was found which was in all characters sufficiently primitive. A genetical analysis of Paulista Pod Corn showed that it contains the same gene as other tunicates, in the IV chromosome, the segregation being complicated by a new gametophyte factor Ga3. The full results of this analysis shall be published elsewhere. (BRIEGER). Selection experiments with Paulista Pod Corn showed that no approximation to a wild ancestor may be obtained when limiting the studies to pure corn. Thus it seemed necessary to substitute "domesticated" by "wild type" modifiers, and the only means for achieving this substitution are hybridizations with Euchlaena. These hybrids have now been analysed init fourth generation, including backcrosses, and, again, the full data will be published elsewhere, by BRIEGER and ADDISON. In one present publication three forms obtained will be described only, which represent an approximation to wild type corn. 6) Before entering howewer into detail, some arguments against ST. HILAIRE's theory must be mentioned. The premendelian argument, referring to the instability of this character, is explained by the fact that all fertile pod corn plants are heterozygous for the dominant Tu factor. But the sterility of the homozygous TuTu, which phenotypically cannot be identified, is still unexplained. The most important argument against the acceptance of the Tunicata faetor as wild type relic gene was removed recently by CUTLER (not yet published) who showed that this type has been preserved for centuries by the Bolivian indians as a mystical "medicine". 7) The main botanical requirements for transforming the corn ear into a wild type structure are stated, and alternative solutions given. One series of these characters are found in Tripsacum and Euchlaena : 2 rows on opposite sides of the rachis, protection of the grains by scales, fragility of the rachis. There remains the other alternative : 4 rows, possibly forming double rows of female and male spikelets, protection of kernels by their glumes, separation of grains at their base from the cob which is thin and flexible. 8) Three successive stages in the reconstruction of wild corn, obtained experimentally, are discussed and illustrated, all characterized by the presence of the Tu gene. a) The structure of the Fl hybrids has already been described in 1943. The main features of the Tunicata hybrids (Fig. -8), when compared with non-tunicate hybrids (Fig. 5-6), consist in the absence of scaly protections, the fragility of the rachis and finally the differentiation of the double rows into one male and one female spikelet. As has been pointed out, these characters represent new phenotypic effects of the tunicate factor which do not appear in the presence of pure maize modifiers. b) The next step was observed among the first backcross to teosinte (Fig. 9). As shown in the photography, Fig. 9D, the features are essencially those of the Fl plants, except that the rachis is more teosinte like, with longer internodes, irregular four-row-arrangement and a complete fragility on the nodes. c) In the next generation a completely new type appeared (Fig. 10) which resembles neither corn nor teosinte, mainly in consequence of one character: the rachis is thin and flexible and not fragile, while the grains have an abscission layer at the base, The medium sized, pointed, brownish and hard granis are protected by their well developed corneous glumes. This last form may not yet be the nearest approach to a wild grass, and I shall try in further experiments to introduce other changes such as an increase of fertile flowers per spikelet, the reduction of difference between terminal and lateral inflorescences, etc.. But the nature of the atavistic reversion is alveadwy such that it alters considerably our expectation when looking for a still existing wild ancestor of corn. 9) The next step in our deductions must now consist in an reversion of our question. We must now explain how we may obtain domesticated corn, starting from a hypothetical wild plant, similar to type c. Of the several changes which must have been necessary to attract the attention of the Indians, the following two seem to me the most important: the disappearance of all abscission layers and the reduction of the glumes. This may have been brought about by an accumulation of mutations. But it seems much more probable to assume that some crossing with a tripsacoid grass or even with Tripsacum australe may have been responsible. In such a cross, the two types of abscission layer would be counterbalanced as shown by the Flhybrids of corn, Tripsacum and Euchlaena. Furthermore in later generations a.tu-allele of Tripsacum may become homozygous and substitute the wild tunicate factor of corn. The hypothesis of a hybrid origin of cultivated corn is not completely new, but has been discussed already by HARSHBERGER and COLLINS. Our hypothesis differs from that of MANGELSDORF and REEVES who assume that crosses with Tripsacum are responsible only for some features of Central and North American corn. 10) The following arguments give indirects evidence in support of our hypothesis: a) Several characters have been observed in indigenous corn from the central region of South America, which may be interpreted as "tripsacoid". b) Equally "zeoid" characters seem to be present in Tripsacum australe of central South-America. c) A system of unbalanced factors, combined by the in-tergeneric cross, may be responsible for the sterility of the wild type tunicata factor when homozygous, a result of the action of modifiers, brought in from Tripsacum together with the tuallele. d) The hybrid theory may explain satisfactorily the presence of so many lethals and semilethals, responsible for the phenomenon of inbreeding in cultivated corn. It must be emphasized that corn does not possess any efficient mechanism to prevent crossing and which could explain the accumulation of these mutants during the evolutionary process. Teosinte which'has about the same mechanism of sexual reproduction has not accumulated such genes, nor self-sterile plants in spite of their pronounced preference for crossing. 11) The second most important step in domestication must have consisted in transforming a four rowed ear into an ear with many rows. The fusion theory, recently revived byLANGHAM is rejected. What happened evidently, just as in succulent pXants (Cactus) or in cones os Gymnosperms, is that there has been a change in phyllotaxy and a symmetry of longitudinal rows superimposed on the original spiral arrangement. 12) The geographical distribution of indigenous corn in South America has been discussed. So far, we may distinguish three zones. The most primitive corn appears in the central lowlands of what I call the Central Triangle of South America: east of the Andies, south of the Amazone-Basin, Northwest of a line formed by the rivers São Prancisco-Paraná and including the Paraguay-Basin. The uniformity of the types found in this extremely large zone is astonishing (BRIEGER and CUTLER). To the west, there is the well known Andian region, characterized by a large number of extremely diverse types from small pop corn to large Cuszco, from soft starch to modified sweet corn, from large cylindrical ears to small round ears, etc.. The third region extends along the atlantic coast in the east, from the Caribean Sea to the Argentine, and is characterized by Cateto, an orange hard flint corn. The Andean types must have been obtained very early, and undoubtedly are the result of the intense Inca agriculture. The Cateto type may be obtained easily by crosses, for instance, of "São Paulo Pointed Pop" to some orange soft corn of the central region. The relation of these three South American zones to Central and North America are not discussed, and it seems essential first to study the intermediate region of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. The geograprical distribution of chromosome knobs is rapidly discussed; but it seems that no conclusions can be drawn before a large number of Tripsacum species has been analysed.

A ação dos gens gametofíticos com referência especial ao milho

1) The first part deals with the different processes which may complicate Mendelian segregation and which may be classified into three groups, according to BRIEGER (1937b) : a) Instability of genes, b) Abnormal segregation due to distur- bances during the meiotic divisions, c) obscured segregation, after a perfectly normal meiosis, caused by elimination or during the gonophase (gametophyte in higher plants), or during zygophase (sporophyte). Without entering into detail, it is emphasized that all the above mentioned complications in the segregation of some genes may be caused by the action of other genes. Thus in maize, the instability of the Al factor is observed only when the gene dt is presente in the homozygous conditions (RHOADES 1938). In another case, still under observation in Piracicaba, an instability is observed in Mirabilis with regard to two pairs of alleles both controlling flower color. Several cases are known, especially in corn, where recessive genes, when homozigous, affect the course of meiosis, causing asynapsis (asyndesis) (BEADLE AND MC CLINTOCK 1928, BEADLE 1930), sticky chromosomes (BEADLE 1932), supermunmerary divisions (BEADLE 1931). The most extreme case of an obscured segregatiou is represented by the action of the S factors in self stetrile plants. An additional proof of EAST AND MANGELSDORF (1925) genetic formula of self sterility has been contributed by the studies on Jinked factors in Nicotina (BRIEGER AND MANGELSDORF (1926) and Antirrhinum (BRIEGER 1930, 1935), In cases of a incomplete competition and selection between pollen tubes, studies of linked indicator-genes are indispensable in the genetic analysis, since it is impossible to analyse the factors for gametophyte competition by direct aproach. 2) The flower structure of corn is explained, and stated that the particularites of floral biology make maize an excellent object for the study of gametophyte factors. Since only one pollen tube per ovule may accomplish fertilization, the competition is always extremely strong, as compared with other species possessing multi-ovulate ovaries. The lenght of the silk permitts the study of pollen tube competitions over a varying distance. Finally the genetic analysis of grains characters (endosperm and aleoron) simpliflen the experimental work considerably, by allowing the accumulation of large numbers for statistical treatment. 3) The four methods for analyzing the naturing of pollen tube competition are discussed, following BRIEGER (1930). Of these the first three are: a) polinization with a small number of pollen grains, b) polinization at different times and c) cut- ting the style after the faster tubes have passe dand before the slower tubes have reached the point where the stigma will be cut. d) The fourth method, alteration of the distatice over which competition takes place, has been applied largely in corn. The basic conceptions underlying this process, are illustrated in Fig. 3. While BRINK (1925) and MANGELSDORF (1929) applied pollen at different levels on the silks, the remaining authors (JONES, 1922, MANGELSDORF 1929, BRIEGER, at al. 1938) have used a different process. The pollen was applied as usual, after removing the main part of the silks, but the ears were divided transversally into halves or quarters before counting. The experiments showed generally an increase in the intensity of competition when there was increase of the distance over which they had to travel. Only MANGELSDORF found an interesting exception. When the distance became extreme, the initially slower tubes seemed to become finally the faster ones. 4) Methods of genetic and statistical analysis are discussed, following chiefly BRIEGER (1937a and 1937b). A formula is given to determine the intensity of ellimination in three point experiments. 5) The few facts are cited which give some indication about the physiological mechanism of gametophyte competition. They are four in number a) the growth rate depends-only on the action of gametophyte factors; b) there is an interaction between the conductive tissue of the stigma or style and the pollen tubes, mainly in self-sterile plants; c) after self-pollination necrosis starts in the tissue of the stigma, in some orchids after F. MÜLLER (1867); d) in pollon mixtures there is an inhibitory interaction between two types of pollen and the female tissue; Gossypium according to BALLS (1911), KEARNEY 1923, 1928, KEARNEY AND HARRISON (1924). A more complete discussion is found in BRIEGER 1930). 6) A list of the gametophyte factors so far localized in corn is given. CHROMOSOME IV Ga 1 : MANGELSDORF AND JONES (1925), EMERSON 1934). Ga 4 : BRIEGER (1945b). Sp 1 : MANGELSDORF (1931), SINGLETON AND MANGELSDORF (1940), BRIEGER (1945a). CHROMOSOME V Ga 2 : BRIEGER (1937a). CHROMOSOME VI BRIEGER, TIDBURY AND TSENG (1938) found indications of a gametophyte factor altering the segregation of yellow endosperm y1. CHROMOSOME IX Ga 3 : BRIEGER, TIDBURY AND TSENG (1938). While the competition in these six cases is essentially determined by one pair of factors, the degree of elimination may be variable, as shown for Ga2 (BRIEGER, 1937), for Ga4 (BRIEGER 1945a) and for Spl (SINGLETON AND MANGELSDORF 1940, BRIEGER 1945b). The action of a gametophyte factor altering the segregation of waxy (perhaps Ga3) is increased by the presence of the sul factor which thus acts as a modifier (BRINCK AND BURNHAM 1927). A polyfactorial case of gametophyte competition has been found by JONES (1922) and analysed by DEMEREC (1929) in rice pop corn which rejects the pollen tubes of other types of corn. Preference for selfing or for brothers-sister mating and partial elimination of other pollen tubes has been described by BRIEGER (1936). 7) HARLAND'S (1943) very ingenious idea is discussed to use pollen tube factors in applied genetics in order to build up an obstacle to natural crossing as a consequence of the rapid pollen tube growth after selfing. Unfortunately, HARLAND could not obtain the experimental proof of the praticability of his idea, during his experiments on selection for minor modifiers for pollen tube grouth in cotton. In maize it should be possible to employ gametophyte factors to build up lines with preference for crossing, though the method should hardly be of any practical advantage.

Aspects of the biology and behavior of Nesolynx sp. (Hymenoptera, Eulophidae)

This research was carried out to study some aspects of the biology and behavior of Nesolynx sp. (Hymenoptera, Eulophidae), a pupal parasite of Psorocampa denticulata (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae) a defoliating caterpillar of Eucalyptus spp. in Brazil. The adults emerge from the host pupa through a circular hole on Its dorsal region. Mating occurs righ after the emergence and the longevity of adults was two days for the males and four days for the females. Regarding to the host species Diatraea saccharalis showed a number of adults significantly greater than Galleria mellonella and the increasing temperature from 21±1 °C to 26±1°C caused a significative increasing in the number of emerged adults in both host species. The emergence of adults increased proportionally to the period of exposition to the host up to 3.50 days; after that, a considerable decrease in the emergence was observed. The parasitoid showed parthenogenetic reproduction therefore the average number of emerged males was significantly greater than the number of females. The sex ratio was similar for the insects emerged from virgin or mated females (0,96) and the life cycle lenght was around 18.34 days for both conditions.

Aspectos da biologia reprodutiva de Bothrops jararaca em cativeiro (Serpentes, Viperidae)

The reproduction of Bothrops jararaca (Wied, 1824) in captivity in ordened to determine the intercourse period, births, number of neonates, proportion of males and females per litter were performed between 1989 and 1999. Fifty eight females were observed, 16 intercourses in captivity, 45 females arrived already fertilized from nature and 53 litters, resulting on the birth of 426 live neonates, 67 infertile egg masses, 18 stillborn neonates and 4 abnormal neonates. The intercourse period was from february to december and the births happened between february and may. From the two gestacional periods observed, the shortest one was 152 days and the longest 239. The average amount of live neonates per litter was 8,04. Among 323 neonates, 47,68% were males and 52,32% were females. During the first year of life, 75,71% of the females and 71,54% of the males died, and 2,31% of the females and 0,81% of the males reached the fifth year of life.

Organization of the cysts in bee (Hymenoptera, Apidae) testis: number of spermatozoa per cyst

The morphology of the cyst cells in Apis mellifera Linné, 1758, Scaptotrigona postica Latreille, 1804, and Melipona bicolor bicolor Lepeletier, 1836 testis, as well as the average number of spermatic cells are reported. The data indicates a supporting and nourrishing role of the cyst cells to the developing cystocytes. The counts of immature spermatozoa in the cysts show an average of 202.8 ± 21.2 spermatozoa for A. mellifera, 117.4 ± 8.68 for S. postica and 88.8 ± 15.57 for M. bicolor, which predict the occurrence of 8 mitotic cycles in the cystocytes of A. mellifera and 7 in the meliponines, considering that only one spermatozoom originates of each final spermatogonium.

Effects of intraspecific competition and food deprivation on the immature phase of Ascia monuste orseis (Lepidoptera, Pieridae)

The effect of intraspecific competition for food on larvae and of food deprivation for 24 h on 2nd and 4th instars of Ascia monuste orseis (Godart, 1819) was investigated. Intraspecific competition for food during the immature phase leads to long pupation time, high larval mortality, reduced adult weight, and reduced number of eggs per female. In food deprivation experiments, the major differences in A. monuste orseis performance were long pupation time in the group that was deprived during the 2nd instar; and a negative effect on reproduction in the group that was deprived during the 4th instar, with reduced adult weight. Both food deprived periods tested are critical, and deprivation during the 2nd instar seems to have an effect as drastic as during the 4th instar because it directly affects larvae survival. Immatures can resist food deprivation for 24 h during the 2nd and 4th instars (low mortality), have a compensatory behaviour (high ingestion and biomass gain) during the 5th instar, and do not demonstrate cannibalistic behaviour during food deprivation.

Padrão reprodutivo de Elachistocleis bicolor (Anura, Microhylidae) na Serra da Bodoquena, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brasil

The reproductive pattern of Elachistocleis bicolor (Guérin Méneville, 1838) was studied at Serra da Bodoquena, from October 2000 to September 2001. Reproduction occurred in the wet season (October to April) and was correlated to high continuous pluviometric precipitation. The species presents sexual size dimorphism, with females larger than males. The number of mature eggs per ovary was 620 ± 251 (n=39) and mature eggs measured 1.15 ± 0.30 mm (n=40). Elachistocleis bicolor presented significant relations between snout-vent length and number of mature eggs (n=39; r²=0.25; p=0.001), individual weight and number of mature eggs (n=41, r²=0.30; p=0.002), snout-vent length and ovarian weight (n=35; r²=0.47; p<0.01), and individual weight and ovarian weight (n=36; r²=0.55; p<0.01). Weight and volume are better to study size-fecundity relationships than snout-vent length. The females invested 22.7 ± 6.3 % (n=35) of their weights in reproduction and the variance associated to this variable was high, related to the reproductive mode of the species.

A new species of Urostreptus (Diplopoda, Spirostreptidae): description and chromossome number

This work presents the description and chromosome number of Urostreptus atrobrunneus sp. nov. The genus until now had not been registered yet in the São Paulo State, Brazil. The meiotic analysis showed that the species presents 2n=24, XY. The C-banding revealed large blocks of constitutive heterochromatin and two heteromorphic chromosomal pairs, one of them corresponding to the sexual pair.

Fecundity of the spider crab Mithraculus forceps (Decapoda, Mithracidae) from the northeastern coast of the state of São Paulo, Brazil

Fecundity is one of the most important parameters in studying the reproductive output of Pleocyemata decapods, especially because of its relationship to the efficiency of population replacement. Knowledge of fecundity provides basic elements for understanding the reproductive strategies, dynamics, and evolution of a given population. The present investigation provides informations on fecundity, egg size, egg loss, and the relationship between fecundity and selected environmental features, for the spider crab Mithraculus forceps (A. Milne Edwards, 1875). Ovigerous crabs were collected each month during 2000, by SCUBA diving, at Couves Island (23º25'25"S, 44º52'03"W) on the northeastern coast of the state of São Paulo, Brazil. A total of 40 ovigerous females with egg in early development (initial stage) and 28 final stage eggs were obtained and analyzed. Mean fecundity, from eggs of the initial stage, was 402.8 ± 240.1 eggs, ranging from 60 to 1,123 eggs. Sizes of females ranged from 9.4 to 14.0 mm carapace width. Mean egg size was 0.56 ± 0.06 mm diameter. A 20.33% rate of egg loss was estimated by comparing the fecundities of batches of eggs in early and late development (40 initial batches and 28 final stages batches). There were no significant relationships between the water temperature or salinity and variations in fecundity. As in most brachyuran species, M. forceps showed a strong conservative relationship between fecundity and body size.

Sexual and asexual reproduction in Didemnum rodriguesi (Ascidiacea, Didemnidae)

Sexual and asexual reproduction and associated population dynamics were investigated in the colonial ascidian Didemnum rodriguesi Rocha & Monniot, 1993 (Didemnidae) in southern Brazil. Investment in sexual (production of new individuals) and asexual (colony growth) reproduction was compared between seasons. Permanently marked quadrats were repeatedly photographed to measure changes in colonies. Eggs and larvae were counted monthly in collected colonies. This species alternates seasonally between sexual (summer) and asexual (winter) reproduction. In summer, colonies were smaller, brooded eggs and larvae and recruitment rates were greater, while in winter, colony size was larger and eggs and larvae were absent. There is a relationship between fecundity and colony area. Fragmentation and fusion of colonies were similar in summer and winter, as well as mortality. In conclusion, D. rodriguesi has a lifecycle usual for high latitude ascidians with a limited time length for sexual reproduction and alternate investment in sexual and asexual reproduction along the year.

Reproductive biology of Leptodactylus fuscus (Anura, Leptodactylidae) in the subtropical climate, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

The aim of this study was to characterize, for the central region of the State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, the reproductive biology of Leptodactylus fuscus (Schneider, 1799), based on the analysis of gonadal development of males and females, reproductive effort, size-fecundity relationships, and occurrence of sexual dimorphism in body size. Mature individuals were found from October 1996 to February 1997 and from October 1997 to December 1997. The highest input of juveniles in the population was recorded in March 1997. There was a positive and significant correlation between the number of mature individuals and the mean monthly temperature. The population did not present sexual dimorphism in size. Males presented significant correlation only between snout-vent length and testes length. All females had oocytes at four different maturation stages and there were no significant correlations regarding size-fecundity variables. The correlation between ovarian size factor and females snout-vent length was not significant either. The main difference between this population and those that inhabit tropical climate was that temperature was responsible for stimulating the reproduction activity, instead of rainfall.

Spatial and temporal distribution of Pseudis minuta (Anura, Hylidae, Hylinae) and environmental variables related to its reproductive activity in Reserva Biológica do Lami, southern Brazil

We studied the reproductive biology of a population of Pseudis minuta Günther, 1858 from Reserva Biológica do Lami (30º 15' S; 51º 05' W), Porto Alegre, southern Brazil. We assessed the spatial and temporal distribution of individuals (males, females, juveniles) and explored potential relationships with environmental variables. Field activities encompassed bimonthly surveys in three semi-permanent ponds, each one during approximately two days and two nights, from August 2004 to July 2005. We recorded differences in the sites used by males, females and juveniles, with males occupying deeper and more distant places from the border. The temporal distributions of individuals, calling sites and amplectant pairs indicated that the reproductive activity of P. minuta is related to some of the studied abiotic factors. Calling males presented statistical differences in relation to non-calling males for all daily abiotic variables analyzed (air temperature, water temperature, relative humidity and rainfall), as well as to monthly temperature and rainfall. The number of active males, females and juveniles was influenced by at least one of the daily or monthly environmental variables analyzed. We conclude that the reproduction in this species is seasonal and may be partially determined by abiotic factors.

Reproductive characteristics of characid fish species (Teleostei, Characiformes) and their relationship with body size and phylogeny

In this study, I investigated the reproductive biology of fish species from the family Characidae of the order Characiformes. I also investigated the relationship between reproductive biology and body weight and interpreted this relationship in a phylogenetic context. The results of the present study contribute to the understanding of the evolution of the reproductive strategies present in the species of this family. Most larger characid species and other characiforms exhibit a reproductive pattern that is generally characterized by a short seasonal reproductive period that lasts one to three months, between September and April. This is accompanied by total spawning, an extremely high fecundity, and, in many species, a reproductive migration. Many species with lower fecundity exhibit some form of parental care. Although reduction in body size may represent an adaptive advantage, it may also require evolutionary responses to new biological problems that arise. In terms of reproduction, smaller species have a tendency to reduce the number of oocytes that they produce. Many small characids have a reproductive pattern similar to that of larger characiforms. On the other hand they may also exhibit a range of modifications that possibly relate to the decrease in body size and the consequent reduction in fecundity. Examples of changes in the general reproductive pattern include the following: reduction in the size of mature oocytes; increase in fecundity; production of several batches of oocytes; an extended reproductive period or even continuous reproduction that allows individuals to reproduce more than once a year; high growth rates; rapid recruitment of juveniles; presence of more than one reproductive cohort that increases the sexually active population; and multiple independent development of insemination as a reproductive strategy. These changes are possibly associated with adaptive pressures that are related to the reduction in body size. In addition, such reproductive characteristics or novelties may reflect the phylogenetic history of a given species.

Reproduction and feeding ecology of Amphisbaena munoai and Anops kingi (Amphisbaenia, Amphisbaenidae) in the Escudo Sul-Rio-Grandense, southern Brazil

This study presents original data on the reproduction and feeding ecology of two syntopic amphisbaenians, Amphisbaena munoai Klappenbach, 1969 and Anops kingi Bell, 1833, from southern Brazil. Sampling was carried out from April 2004 to April 2006 at a highland area located in São Jerônimo and Barão do Triunfo municipalities, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. A total of 647 amphisbaenians were collected, 510 specimens of A. munoai and 137 specimens of A. kingi, of which 130 and 93, respectively, had their gonads and gut content analyzed. Both species presented a unimodal pattern of seasonal distribution, sexually mature females with significantly larger snout vent length (SVL) than sexually mature males, and seasonal reproductive cycle. Adults of A. kingi had significantly larger (SVL) than those of Amphisbaena munoai. Both species had generalist diets, but termites (Isoptera) was a staple item in their diet. Greater predominance of insect larvae was observed in the diet of A. kingi, which may be due to its larger body in comparison to A. munoai. Insect larvae ingested by A. kingi were significantly larger than those ingested by A. munoai. Diets of adult males and females of both species were not significantly different. The ontogenetic diet comparison in both species revealed significant numerical differences, with adults consuming higher numbers of prey.