Microgeographical patterns of schistosomiasis and water contact behavior; examples from Africa and Brazil

This paper examines the results of spatial (microgeographical) water contact/schistosomiasis studies in two African (Egyptian and Kenyan) and one Brazilian communities. All three studies used traditional cartographic and statistical methods but one of them emploeyd also GIS (geographical information systems) tools. The advantage of GIS and their potential role in schistosomiasis control are briefly described. The three cases revealed considerable variation in the spatial distribution of water contact, transmission parameters and infection levels at the household and individual levels. All studies showed considerable variation in the prevalence and intensity of infection between households. They also show a variable influence of distance on water contact behavior associated with type of activity, age, sex, socioeconomic level, perception of water quality, season and availability of water in the home. Water contact behavior and schistosomiasis were evaluated in the Brazilian village of Nova União within the context of water sharing between household and age/sex groups. Recommendations are made for further spatial studies on the transmission and control of schistosomiasis.

A geoprocessing approach for studying and controlling schistosomiasis in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil

Geographical information systems (GIS) are tools that have been recently tested for improving our understanding of the spatial distribution of disease. The objective of this paper was to further develop the GIS technology to model and control schistosomiasis using environmental, social, biological and remote-sensing variables. A final regression model (R² = 0.39) was established, after a variable selection phase, with a set of spatial variables including the presence or absence of Biomphalaria glabrata, winter enhanced vegetation index, summer minimum temperature and percentage of houses with water coming from a spring or well. A regional model was also developed by splitting the state of Minas Gerais (MG) into four regions and establishing a linear regression model for each of the four regions: 1 (R² = 0.97), 2 (R² = 0.60), 3 (R² = 0.63) and 4 (R² = 0.76). Based on these models, a schistosomiasis risk map was built for MG. In this paper, geostatistics was also used to make inferences about the presence of Biomphalaria spp. The result was a map of species and risk areas. The obtained risk map permits the association of uncertainties, which can be used to qualify the inferences and it can be thought of as an auxiliary tool for public health strategies.

The Estrada Real project and endemic diseases: the case of schistosomiasis, geoprocessing and tourism

Geographical Information System (GIS) is a tool that has recently been applied to better understand spatial disease distributions. Using meteorological, social, sanitation, mollusc distribution data and remote sensing variables, this study aimed to further develop the GIS technology by creating a model for the spatial distribution of schistosomiasis and to apply this model to an area with rural tourism in the Brazilian state of Minas Gerais (MG). The Estrada Real, covering about 1,400 km, is the largest and most important Brazilian tourism project, involving 163 cities in MG with different schistosomiasis prevalence rates. The model with three variables showed a R² = 0.34, with a standard deviation of risk estimated adequate for public health needs. The main variables selected for modelling were summer vegetation, summer minimal temperature and winter minimal temperature. The results confirmed the importance of Remote Sensing data and the valuable contribution of GIS in identifying priority areas for intervention in tourism regions which are endemic to schistosomiasis.

New tools for epidemiology: a space odyssey

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) facilitate access to epidemiological data through visualization and may be consulted for the development of mathematical models and analysis by spatial statistics. Variables such as land-cover, land-use, elevations, surface temperatures, rainfall etc. emanating from earth-observing satellites, complement GIS as this information allows the analysis of disease distribution based on environmental characteristics. The strength of this approach issues from the specific environmental requirements of those causative infectious agents, which depend on intermediate hosts for their transmission. The distribution of these diseases is restricted, both by the environmental requirements of their intermediate hosts/vectors and by the ambient temperature inside these hosts, which effectively govern the speed of maturation of the parasite. This paper discusses the current capabilities with regard to satellite data collection in terms of resolution (spatial, temporal and spectral) of the sensor instruments on board drawing attention to the utility of computer-based models of the Earth for epidemiological research. Virtual globes, available from Google and other commercial firms, are superior to conventional maps as they do not only show geographical and man-made features, but also allow instant import of data-sets of specific interest, e.g. environmental parameters, demographic information etc., from the Internet.

Biotic factors and occurrence of Lutzomyia longipalpis in endemic area of visceral leishmaniasis, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil

The relationships between environmental exposure to risk agents and health conditions have been studied with the aid of remote sensing imagery, a tool particularly useful in the study of vegetation cover. This study aims to evaluate the influence of environmental variables on the spatial distribution of the abundance of Lutzomyia longipalpis and the reported canine and human visceral leishmaniasis (VL) cases at an urban area of Campo Grande, state of Mato Grosso do Sul. The sandfly captures were performed in 13 residences that were selected by raffle considering four residences or collection station for buffer. These buffers were generated from the central house with about 50, 100 and 200 m from it in an endemic area of VL. The abundance of sandflies and human and canine cases were georreferenced using the GIS software PCI Geomatica. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and percentage of land covered by vegetation were the environmental variables extracted from a remote sensing IKONOS-2 image. The average NDVI was considered as the complexity of habitat and the standard deviation as the heterogeneity of habitat. One thousand three hundred sixty-seven specimens were collected during the catch. We found a significant positive linear correlation between the abundance of sandflies and the percentage of vegetation cover and average NDVI. However, there was no significant association between habitat heterogeneity and the abundance of these flies.

Delimitation of kala-azar risk areas in the district of Vaishali in Bihar (India) using a geo-environmental approach

Remote sensing and geographical information technologies were used to discriminate areas of high and low risk for contracting kala-azar or visceral leishmaniasis. Satellite data were digitally processed to generate maps of land cover and spectral indices, such as the normalised difference vegetation index and wetness index. To map estimated vector abundance and indoor climate data, local polynomial interpolations were used based on the weightage values. Attribute layers were prepared based on illiteracy and the unemployed proportion of the population and associated with village boundaries. Pearson's correlation coefficient was used to estimate the relationship between environmental variables and disease incidence across the study area. The cell values for each input raster in the analysis were assigned values from the evaluation scale. Simple weighting/ratings based on the degree of favourable conditions for kala-azar transmission were used for all the variables, leading to geo-environmental risk model. Variables such as, land use/land cover, vegetation conditions, surface dampness, the indoor climate, illiteracy rates and the size of the unemployed population were considered for inclusion in the geo-environmental kala-azar risk model. The risk model was stratified into areas of "risk"and "non-risk"for the disease, based on calculation of risk indices. The described approach constitutes a promising tool for microlevel kala-azar surveillance and aids in directing control efforts.

Advantages of a cohort study on cardiac arrest conducted by nurses

AbstractOBJECTIVEIdentifying factors associated to survival after cardiac arrest.METHODAn experience report of a cohort study conducted in a university hospital, with a consecutive sample comprised of 285 patients. Data were collected for a year by trained nurses. The training strategy was conducted through an expository dialogue lecture. Collection monitoring was carried out by nurses via telephone calls, visits to the emergency room and by medical record searches. The neurological status of survivors was evaluated at discharge, after six months and one year.RESULTSOf the 285 patients, 16 survived until hospital discharge, and 13 remained alive after one year, making possible to identify factors associated with survival. There were no losses in the process.CONCLUSIONCohort studies help identify risks and disease outcomes. Considering cardiac arrest, they can subsidize public policies, encourage future studies and training programs for CPR, thereby improving the prognosis of patients.

Caracterização fenotípica e diversidade de bactérias diazotróficas associativas isoladas de solos em reabilitação após a mineração de bauxita

As gramíneas, usadas comumente para reabilitação de áreas degradadas, podem formar associações em suas raízes com bactérias fixadoras de nitrogênio e, assim, contribuir para a sustentabilidade do ecossistema. Por outro lado, a diversidade microbiana exerce papel relevante na resiliência dos processos biológicos do solo, que incluem a fixação biológica de N2. O presente estudo teve como objetivo a caracterização fenotípica de 72 isolados de bactérias diazotróficas associativas Gram-negativas, oriundos de áreas sob diferentes estratégias de reabilitação, após a mineração da bauxita em Poços de Caldas (MG), por meio da inoculação de amostras de solo nos meios de cultivo NFb, Fam e JNFb. Estirpes tipo e referência de espécies de Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum e Burkholderia foram usadas para comparação, uma vez que são capazes de crescer nestes meios. O dendrograma de similaridade baseado em sete características culturais dos isolados em meio de cultivo GNA revelou grande diversidade, sendo obtidos 50 grupos a 81 % de similaridade. A tolerância a NaCl em meio de cultivo batata/sacarose/ácido málico variou de 0 a 50 g L-1, permitindo separar os isolados e estirpes tipo em cinco grupos. O diâmetro celular variou de 0,61 a 1,21 µm, e 13 isolados diferiram das estirpes tipo e referência. Os padrões de proteína total, obtidos por eletroforese em gel de poliacrilamida (SDS-PAGE), foram bastante diversos, possibilitando a formação de 15 grupos com similaridade a 75 %. Não houve relação entre os grupos formados pelas várias características estudadas, tampouco destes com as áreas de origem dos isolados. Os meios de cultivo Fam e JNFb detectaram, além das espécies-alvo, outras não identificadas. A alta dissimilaridade da maioria dos isolados em relação a estirpes tipo, principalmente com relação aos padrões eletroforéticos de proteína total, admite a possibilidade da presença de novas espécies entre eles.

Eficiência agronômica de rizóbios selecionados e diversidade de populações nativas nodulíferas em perdões (MG): I - caupi

O caupi (Vigna unguiculata L.) é de grande importância nutricional, social, econômica e estratégica, principalmente para as regiões Norte e Nordeste, e vem ultrapassando as barreiras regionais, com amplas perspectivas no agronegócio brasileiro. A interação do caupi com bactérias fixadoras de N atmosférico pode aumentar a produtividade e diminuir os custos de produção. No presente trabalho, avaliou-se no campo a eficiência agronômica de estirpes previamente selecionadas de rizóbio em simbiose com o caupi, comparadas à estirpe recomendada até 2004, para a produção de inoculantes comerciais (BR 2001). Posteriormente, a diversidade fenotípica das populações nativas foi avaliada pela análise das características culturais e pela análise de proteína total por eletroforese em gel poliacrilamida (SDS-PAGE). Verificou-se que a inoculação no campo com as estirpes UFLA 03-84 e INPA 03-11B contribuiu, de forma significativa, para o aumento no rendimento de grãos, sendo semelhante ao da testemunha, com 70 kg ha-1 de N, e superior ao da estirpe BR 2001. A população nativa apresentou alta diversidade fenotípica cultural e de padrões protéicos. As estirpes inoculadas foram bastante distintas fenotipicamente de estirpes que compõem a população nativa.

Eficiência agronômica de rizóbios selecionados e diversidade de populações nativas nodulíferas em Perdões (MG): II - feijoeiro

O feijão (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) é um dos principais constituintes da dieta do brasileiro, por ser excelente fonte protéica e, portanto, um produto agrícola de grande importância econômico-social. A interação do feijoeiro com bactérias fixadoras de N atmosférico pode aumentar a produtividade e diminuir os custos de produção. No presente trabalho, avaliou-se, no campo, a eficiência agronômica de estirpes previamente selecionadas de rizóbio em simbiose com o feijoeiro, comparadas à estirpe recomendada para a produção de inoculantes comerciais (CIAT 899). A diversidade fenotípica da população nativa foi avaliada pela análise das características culturais e pela análise de proteína total por eletroforese em gel poliacrilamida (SDS-PAGE). Verificou-se que a inoculação no campo com as estirpes UFLA 02-100, UFLA 02-86 e UFLA 02-127 promoveu rendimento de grãos semelhante ao da testemunha, com 70 kg ha-1 de N, e à inoculação com a estirpe de referência CIAT 899. Não houve relação entre os grupos fenotípicos de perfil protéico total e caracterização cultural constituídos pelas estirpes nativas do solo. As populações nativas que nodularam feijão mostraram-se bastante diversas fenotipicamente e não incluíram estirpes similares às estirpes introduzidas como inoculantes.

Crescimento micelial e síntese de proteínas de choque térmico em três isolados de fungos ectomicorrízicos sob condições de temperaturas supra-ótimas

A síntese de proteínas de choque térmico é uma alteração fisiológica transiente na célula de organismos expostos a temperaturas supra-ótimas. A resposta fisiológica ao choque térmico é dependente, particularmente, do tipo de célula e da capacidade dos organismos em responder às alterações do meio. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o crescimento micelial e a síntese de proteínas de choque térmico de dois isolados de Pisolithus sp. (RV82 e RS24) e de um isolado de Paxillus involutus em temperaturas supra-ótimas. No trabalho, foram feitas análises de crescimento micelial em placa de Petri com meio apropriado para o crescimento sob condições de temperaturas subletais, letais e de choque térmico. As proteínas nos micélios dos isolados foram marcadas com aminoácido radioativo (³H-leucina), e a radioatividade, quantificada em solução de cintilação. A síntese das proteínas de choque térmico (HSPs) foi avaliada em gel de poliacrilamida (SDS-PAGE e 2D-PAGE). Demonstrou-se, com ³H-leucina, que os fungos ectomicorrízicos apresentaram respostas diferenciadas em relação ao crescimento micelial quando expostos a temperaturas supra-ótimas. Os dois isolados de Pisolithus sp., RS24 e RV82, mostraram-se mais tolerantes a altas temperaturas, quando comparado ao isolado de P. involutus. Os isolados de Pisolithus sp. diferem quanto à síntese de proteínas de estresse, com a síntese de HSPs de alta e de baixa massa molecular. Em resposta ao choque térmico, o isolado RV82 sintetizou proteínas putativas dos grupos HSP70, HSP28 e HSP26 e as sHSPs (15-18 kDa), enquanto o isolado RS24 sintetizou as dos grupos HSP86, HSP60, HSP55 e HSP35 e as sHSPs (12-18 kDa). A baixa tolerância a temperaturas elevadas do isolado de P. involutus foi atribuída à ausência de síntese de proteínas putativas do grupo HSPs em condições de choque térmico. Os resultados sugerem que os isolados de fungos ectomicorrízicos diferem quanto ao mecanismo de indução de termotolerância.

Síntese de hidrogéis e cinética de liberação de amônio e potássio

Hidrogéis produzidos a partir de poliacrilamida (PAAm) foram sintetizados e suas eficiências para liberação controlada de NH4+ e K+ contidos em fertilizantes foram avaliadas. Os hidrogéis foram sintetizados em solução aquosa a partir da polimerização do monômero acrilamida (AAm) em duas concentrações (3,6 e 21,7 %), em presença do agente de reticulação N', N-metileno-bis-acrilamida (MBAAm) e catalisador N, N, N', N'-tetrametil etilenodiamina (TEMED). A fixação de nutrientes ocorreu submetendo-se os hidrogéis à solução aquosa com concentrações de 86 e 82 mg L-1 de K+ e NH4+. As propriedades hidrofílicas, espectroscópicas e morfológicas foram investigadas por meio de medidas de grau de intumescimento (Q), por espectroscopia no infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR) e por meio de imagens obtidas por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). Os teores de NH4+ e K+ liberados em meio aquoso foram monitorados em intervalos de tempo de 1, 2, 4, 18, 26 e 50 h por espectrofotometria com análise por injeção em fluxo e por fotometria de chama. Os resultados de grau de intumescimento mostraram que hidrogéis com nutrientes fixados são mais hidrofóbicos. Observações em MEV revelaram decréscimo no tamanho médio dos poros para os hidrogéis com maior quantidade de acrilamida. A cinética de liberação controlada de NH4+ e K+ permitiu inferir que o hidrogel sintetizado com 21,7 % de AAm apresentou maior potencial na liberação controlada dos nutrientes, principalmente NH4+.

Morphostructural characterization of soil conventionally tilled with mechanized and animal traction with and without cover crop

The structural stability and restructuring ability of a soil are related to the methods of crop management and soil preparation. A recommended strategy to reduce the effects of soil preparation is to use crop rotation and cover crops that help conserve and restore the soil structure. The aim of this study was to evaluate and quantify the homogeneous morphological units in soil under conventional mechanized tillage and animal traction, as well as to assess the effect on the soil structure of intercropping with jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis L.). Profiles were analyzed in April of 2006, in five counties in the Southern-Central region of Paraná State (Brazil), on family farms producing maize (Zea mays L.), sometimes intercropped with jack bean. The current structures in the crop profile were analyzed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and subsequently principal component analysis (PCA) to generate statistics. Morphostructural soil analysis showed a predominance of compact units in areas of high-intensity cultivation under mechanized traction. The cover crop did not improve the structure of the soil with low porosity and compact units that hamper the root system growth. In areas exposed to animal traction, a predominance of cracked units was observed, where roots grew around the clods and along the gaps between them.

Computer-assisted cartography using topographic properties: precision and accuracy of local soil maps in central Mexico

Map units directly related to properties of soil-landscape are generated by local soil classes. Therefore to take into consideration the knowledge of farmers is essential to automate the procedure. The aim of this study was to map local soil classes by computer-assisted cartography (CAC), using several combinations of topographic properties produced by GIS (digital elevation model, aspect, slope, and profile curvature). A decision tree was used to find the number of topographic properties required for digital cartography of the local soil classes. The maps produced were evaluated based on the attributes of map quality defined as precision and accuracy of the CAC-based maps. The evaluation was carried out in Central Mexico using three maps of local soil classes with contrasting landscape and climatic conditions (desert, temperate, and tropical). In the three areas the precision (56 %) of the CAC maps based on elevation as topographical feature was higher than when based on slope, aspect and profile curvature. The accuracy of the maps (boundary locations) was however low (33 %), in other words, further research is required to improve this indicator.

Surface mapping, organic matter and water stocks in peatlands of the Serra do Espinhaço meridional - Brazil

Peatlands are soil environments that store carbon and large amounts of water, due to their composition (90 % water), low hydraulic conductivity and a sponge-like behavior. It is estimated that peat bogs cover approximately 4.2 % of the Earth's surface and stock 28.4 % of the soil carbon of the planet. Approximately 612 000 ha of peatlands have been mapped in Brazil, but the peat bogs in the Serra do Espinhaço Meridional (SdEM) were not included. The objective of this study was to map the peat bogs of the northern part of the SdEM and estimate the organic matter pools and water volume they stock. The peat bogs were pre-identified and mapped by GIS and remote sensing techniques, using ArcGIS 9.3, ENVI 4.5 and GPS Track Maker Pro software and the maps validated in the field. Six peat bogs were mapped in detail (1:20,000 and 1:5,000) by transects spaced 100 m and each transect were determined every 20 m, the UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinates, depth and samples collected for characterization and determination of organic matter, according to the Brazilian System of Soil Classification. In the northern part of SdEM, 14,287.55 ha of peatlands were mapped, distributed over 1,180,109 ha, representing 1.2 % of the total area. These peatlands have an average volume of 170,021,845.00 m³ and stock 6,120,167 t (428.36 t ha-1) of organic matter and 142,138,262 m³ (9,948 m³ ha-1) of water. In the peat bogs of the Serra do Espinhaço Meridional, advanced stages of decomposing (sapric) organic matter predominate, followed by the intermediate stage (hemic). The vertical growth rate of the peatlands ranged between 0.04 and 0.43 mm year-1, while the carbon accumulation rate varied between 6.59 and 37.66 g m-2 year-1. The peat bogs of the SdEM contain the headwaters of important water bodies in the basins of the Jequitinhonha and San Francisco Rivers and store large amounts of organic carbon and water, which is the reason why the protection and preservation of these soil environments is such an urgent and increasing need.