Calculating germination measurements and organizing spreadsheets

With the objective to minimize difficulties for beginners we are proposing the use of a conventional spreadsheet for the calculations of the main germination (or emergence) measurements, the organization of the final data for the statistical analysis and some electronic commands involved in these steps.

Diagnostic investigation of ventilator-associated pneumonia using bronchoalveolar lavage: comparative study with a postmortem lung biopsy

The purpose of the present study was to validate the quantitative culture and cellularity of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) for the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). A prospective validation test trial was carried out between 1992 and 1997 in a general adult intensive care unit of a teaching hospital. Thirty-seven patients on mechanical ventilation with suspected VAP who died at most three days after a BAL diagnostic procedure were submitted to a postmortem lung biopsy. BAL effluent was submitted to Gram staining, quantitative culture and cellularity count. Postmortem lung tissue quantitative culture and histopathological findings were considered to be the gold standard exams for VAP diagnosis. According to these criteria, 20 patients (54%) were diagnosed as having VAP and 17 (46%) as not having the condition. Quantitative culture of BAL effluent showed 90% sensitivity (18/20), 94.1% specificity (16/17), 94.7% positive predictive value and 88.8% negative predictive value. Fever and leukocytosis were useless for VAP diagnosis. Gram staining of BAL effluent was negative in 94.1% of the patients without VAP (16/17). Regarding the total cellularity of BAL, a cut-off point of 400,000 cells/ml showed a specificity of 94.1% (16/17), and a cut-off point of 50% of BAL neutrophils showed a sensitivity of 90% (19/20). In conclusion, BAL quantitative culture, Gram staining and cellularity might be useful in the diagnostic investigation of VAP.

Clinical signs of pneumonia in children: association with and prediction of diagnosis by fuzzy sets theory

The present study compares the performance of stochastic and fuzzy models for the analysis of the relationship between clinical signs and diagnosis. Data obtained for 153 children concerning diagnosis (pneumonia, other non-pneumonia diseases, absence of disease) and seven clinical signs were divided into two samples, one for analysis and other for validation. The former was used to derive relations by multi-discriminant analysis (MDA) and by fuzzy max-min compositions (fuzzy), and the latter was used to assess the predictions drawn from each type of relation. MDA and fuzzy were closely similar in terms of prediction, with correct allocation of 75.7 to 78.3% of patients in the validation sample, and displaying only a single instance of disagreement: a patient with low level of toxemia was mistaken as not diseased by MDA and correctly taken as somehow ill by fuzzy. Concerning relations, each method provided different information, each revealing different aspects of the relations between clinical signs and diagnoses. Both methods agreed on pointing X-ray, dyspnea, and auscultation as better related with pneumonia, but only fuzzy was able to detect relations of heart rate, body temperature, toxemia and respiratory rate with pneumonia. Moreover, only fuzzy was able to detect a relationship between heart rate and absence of disease, which allowed the detection of six malnourished children whose diagnoses as healthy are, indeed, disputable. The conclusion is that even though fuzzy sets theory might not improve prediction, it certainly does enhance clinical knowledge since it detects relationships not visible to stochastic models.

Effect of heat and moisture exchangers on the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill patients

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) remains one of the major causes of infection in the intensive care unit (ICU) and is associated with the length of hospital stay, duration of mechanical ventilation, and use of broad-spectrum antibiotics. We compared the frequency of VAP 10 months prior to (pre-intervention group) and 13 months after (post-intervention group) initiation of the use of a heat and moisture exchanger (HME) filter. This is a study with prospective before-and-after design performed in the ICU in a tertiary university hospital. Three hundred and fourteen patients were admitted to the ICU under mechanical ventilation, 168 of whom were included in group HH (heated humidifier) and 146 in group HME. The frequency of VAP per 1000 ventilator-days was similar for both the HH and HME groups (18.7 vs 17.4, respectively; P = 0.97). Duration of mechanical ventilation (11 vs 12 days, respectively; P = 0.48) and length of ICU stay (11 vs 12 days, respectively; P = 0.39) did not differ between the HH and HME groups. The chance of developing VAP was higher in patients with a longer ICU stay and longer duration of mechanical ventilation. This finding was similar when adjusted for the use of HME. The use of HME in intensive care did not reduce the incidence of VAP, the duration of mechanical ventilation, or the length of stay in the ICU in the study population.

Modeling pulmonary fibrosis by abnormal expression of telomerase/apoptosis/collagen V in experimental usual interstitial pneumonia

Limitations on tissue proliferation capacity determined by telomerase/apoptosis balance have been implicated in pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. In addition, collagen V shows promise as an inductor of apoptosis. We evaluated the quantitative relationship between the telomerase/apoptosis index, collagen V synthesis, and epithelial/fibroblast replication in mice exposed to butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) at high oxygen concentration. Two groups of mice were analyzed: 20 mice received BHT, and 10 control mice received corn oil. Telomerase expression, apoptosis, collagen I, III, and V fibers, and hydroxyproline were evaluated by immunohistochemistry, in situ detection of apoptosis, electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, and histomorphometry. Electron microscopy confirmed the presence of increased alveolar epithelial cells type 1 (AEC1) in apoptosis. Immunostaining showed increased nuclear expression of telomerase in AEC type 2 (AEC2) between normal and chronic scarring areas of usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP). Control lungs and normal areas from UIP lungs showed weak green birefringence of type I and III collagens in the alveolar wall and type V collagen in the basement membrane of alveolar capillaries. The increase in collagen V was greater than collagens I and III in scarring areas of UIP. A significant direct association was found between collagen V and AEC2 apoptosis. We concluded that telomerase, collagen V fiber density, and apoptosis evaluation in experimental UIP offers the potential to control reepithelization of alveolar septa and fibroblast proliferation. Strategies aimed at preventing high rates of collagen V synthesis, or local responses to high rates of cell apoptosis, may have a significant impact in pulmonary fibrosis.

Estimating the average length of hospitalization due to pneumonia: a fuzzy approach

Exposure to air pollutants is associated with hospitalizations due to pneumonia in children. We hypothesized the length of hospitalization due to pneumonia may be dependent on air pollutant concentrations. Therefore, we built a computational model using fuzzy logic tools to predict the mean time of hospitalization due to pneumonia in children living in São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil. The model was built with four inputs related to pollutant concentrations and effective temperature, and the output was related to the mean length of hospitalization. Each input had two membership functions and the output had four membership functions, generating 16 rules. The model was validated against real data, and a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was constructed to evaluate model performance. The values predicted by the model were significantly correlated with real data. Sulfur dioxide and particulate matter significantly predicted the mean length of hospitalization in lags 0, 1, and 2. This model can contribute to the care provided to children with pneumonia.

IL-6 and TNF-α serum levels are associated with early death in community-acquired pneumonia patients

Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is amongst the leading causes of death worldwide. As inflammatory markers, cytokines can predict outcomes, if interpreted together with clinical data and scoring systems such as CURB-65, CRB, and Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II). The aim of this study was to determine the impact of inflammatory biomarkers on the early mortality of hospitalized CAP patients. Twenty-seven CAP patients needing hospitalization were enrolled for the study and samples of interleukin-1 (IL-1) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), C-reactive protein (CRP), and homocystein were collected at the time of admission (day 1) as well as on the seventh day of the treatment. There was a significant reduction in the levels of IL-6 between the first and the second collections. Median IL-6 values decreased from 24 pg/mL (day 1) to 8 pg/mL (day 7) (P=0.016). The median levels of TNF-α were higher in patients: i) with acute kidney injury (AKI) (P=0.045), ii) requiring mechanical ventilation (P=0.040), iii) with short hospital stays (P=0.009), iv) admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) (P=0.040), v) who died early (P=0.003), and vi) with worse CRB scores (P=0.013). In summary, IL-6 and TNF-α levels were associated with early mortality of CAP patients. Longer admission levels demonstrated greater likelihood of early death and overall mortality, necessity of mechanical ventilation, and AKI.

Laringocele: uma causa de obstrução de vias aéreas superiores

Laringoceles são dilatações anormais do sáculo do ventrículo de Morgani da laringe, localizando-se entre a falsa prega vocal e a face interna da cartilagem tireóide. Relevância clínica é rara, sendo o achado de laringoceles assintomáticas em necropsia muito alto. Algumas vezes, pode se apresentar já como uma grande massa cervical, levando à obstrução de vias aéreas e necessitando de intervenção de urgência. Neste trabalho, os autores relatam um caso de laringocele levando à obstrução de vias aéreas superiores, necessitando de traqueostomia de urgência e fazem uma revisão da literatura sobre o tema. Complicações de laringocele incluem infecção (formação de piocele), aspiração de patógenos e subseqüente bronquite e pneumonia, infecção do espaço lateral da faringe (depois de ruptura) e obstrução de vias aéreas superiores, como no caso apresentado. A laringocele, apesar de ser uma doença benigna, é uma causa potencial de obstrução respiratória que pode ameaçar a vida do paciente. O correto diagnóstico e manejo adequado precoce podem evitar que situações de emergência, como a do paciente do caso relatado, levem à morte.

Isolamento de myxovirus parainfluenza 3 de gado bovino no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil

Faz-se referência ao isolamento, em São Paulo, de 4 cêpas de Myxovirus parainfluenza do tipo 3, do tecido pulmonar de gado bovino com lesões de pneumonia, que se mostraram antigenicamente semelhantes à cêpa bovina SF-4. Uma das cêpas isoladas mostrou certa relação antigênica com a cêpa humana HA-1.

Morbidade e mortalidade hospitalar de crianças menores de um ano, em Ribeirão Preto, SP (Brasil), 1975

Foi estudada a morbi-mortalidade hospitalar de crianças menores de um ano, residentes em Ribeirão Preto, SP (Brasil), internadas nos hospitais gerais e no Pronto Socorro Infantil desse município, em 1975. Detectou-se um elevado coeficiente de internação para essa faixa etária (437/1000) sendo maior no sexo masculino. Apenas três diagnósticos-diarréia, desidratação e pneumonia - foram responsáveis por 80,36% das internações. A morbidade hospitalar apresentou diferenças segundo a categoria de internação das crianças. Observou-se que 75% dos óbitos hospitalares foram decorrentes de doenças infecciosas. A letalidade hospitalar foi 3 vezes mais elevada nas crianças "indigentes" do que naquelas de categoria particular.

Risco de morrer no primeiro ano de vida entre favelados e não favelados no município de Porto Alegre, RS (Brasil), em 1980

Foram apresentados o risco relativo (RR) e o risco atribuível percentual (RAP) ao fator favelado de morrer, no primeiro ano de vida, em quatro setores de Porto Alegre, RS (Brasil), em 1980. O risco relativo médio de morrer no primeiro ano de vida foi de 2,4 a 3,62 vezes maior para o favelado, considerado um intervalo de confiança de 95%. O RAP ao favelado de morrer no primeiro ano de vida variou de 23,2% a 33,0% considerado um intervalo de confiança de 95%. O estudo dos cinco principais grupos de causas revelou que com exceção dos óbitos por anomalias congênitas, o risco relativo por essas causas foi sempre superior para o favelado; 1,8 vezes maior para afecções perinatais, 5,9 para a doença infecciosa intestinal, 6,1 para pneumonia e gripe e 8,0 para septicemia. Houve setores, como o intermediário sul, em que o risco relativo de morrer por septicemia foi 18,2 vezes maior para o favelado. Quanto ao risco atribuível, verificou-se que em média 28% da mortalidade infantil é atribuível a 18% de favelados. Considerados os principais grupos de causas, o RAP ao fator favelado foi de 12,8% para a mortalidade perinatal, 47,7% para doença infecciosa intestinal, 48,7% para pneumonia e gripe e 56,7% para septicemia. Mesmo levando em conta que o problema social e econômico é o principal determinante do fato de um indivíduo ser favelado, recomenda-se verificar a qualidade da assistência à saúde prestada às populações faveladas, pois é possível obter-se redução de morbi-mortalidade por aquelas causas, através da aplicação de cuidados médicos adequados, dirigidos prioritariamente às populações em piores condições de vida.

Concordância na determinação da causa básica de óbito em menores de um ano na região metropolitana do Rio de Janeiro, 1986

No âmbito de um estudo sobre a qualidade do preenchimento da Declaração de Óbito, avaliou-se a concordância na determinação da causa básica da morte entre o médico que atestou o óbito e a equipe de médicos que avaliou informações do prontuário hospitalar. Estudou-se uma amostra de óbitos de menores de um ano ocorridos na Região Metropolitana do Rio de Janeiro, RJ (Brasil), de maio de 1986 a abril de 1987. Para os óbitos neonatais, as causas perinatais concentraram a maior parte dos óbitos e apesar das mudanças observadas, a composição entre os principais grupos não se alterou de modo importante. No interior do grupo de causas perinatais, conseguimos reduzir as causas classificadas de maneira genérica ou mal definidas em cerca de 50% com o preenchimento do novo atestado. Para os óbitos pós-neonatais, foram encontradas alterações significativas, em especial para os óbitos causados por pneumonia e desnutrição. Dado o grande inter-relacionamento observado entre as principais causas de morte neste grupo (pneumonia, diarréia, desnutrição), considerou-se que a apuração das causas múltiplas de morte daria uma idéia mais ampla e correta do processo que resultou na morte, permitindo uma visão mais globalizante da questão.

Assessment of a strategy for the control of respiratory diseases in children

A programme for the control of respiratory diseases in children was conceived for the State of S. Paulo, Brazil, in 1986. Its progress thereafter and the epidemiology of the diseases concerned are examined. Apart from an inquiry into the 64 existing State local health authorities, a sample of 18,255 cases of children assisted by the programme at different levels, including both in-patient and outpatient care, is analysed. Each case record included information about identification (child, doctor and health facility), reasons for calling, diagnoses made and outcome of treatment. Further data were also sought from hospitals and from State mortality records. The programme was found to be poorly implemented in the State but, where implemented, it showed itself capable of resolving problems (only 0.5% of the cases could not be handled) as also of changing ongoing trends (more than 50% reduction in hospital admission rates). Individual assessment of each item of the programme indicated its bottlenecks. Regarding the epidemiology of respiratory diseases, it is observed that the major burden to health services comes from children aged less than five, and that the most important diseases are wheezing illnesses and pneumonia. Morevoer, they were found to be significantly associated (p = 0.000) so that a child in the community presenting wheezing diseases is 5 times more likely to develop pneumonia than a child with any other respiratory diagnosis. Similarly, among the under five deaths it was found that the risk for pneumonia is 3 times greater for children who died presenting wheezing diseases than it is for children with any other sort of diagnosis. In conclusion, the programme is deemed to be efficient and effective but its efficacy is marred by administrative flaws. The successful control of respiratory problems in childhood is related to a proper appreciation of the importance of wheezing diseases.

Níveis plasmáticos de vitamina A, carotenóides e proteína ligadora de retinol em crianças com infecções respiratórias agudas e doenças diarréicas

Planejou-se um estudo com o objetivo de se avaliar os níveis plasmáticos de vitamina A, carotenóides e proteína ligadora de retinol (RBP) em 311 crianças, de 7 meses a onze anos de idade, com história de infecções das vias aéreas superiores (IVAS), pneumonia e diarréia, residentes na área urbana da Cidade de São Paulo, Brasil, e atendidas no serviço de pediatria de um hospital-escola. As dosagens de vitamina A e carotenóides realizaram-se pelo método de Neeld-Pearson e o RBP pelo método de Mancini. Os níveis plasmáticos de vitamina A (µg/dl) e RBP (mg/dl) foram mais baixos (p<0,05) nos grupos diarréia e pneumonia (15,2 µg/dl e 1,7 µg/dl; 15,2 µg/dl; 2,6 mg/dl, respectivamente), quando comparados com os grupos IVAS e testemunha (19,0 µg/dl; 2,4µg/dl e 18,8µg/dl; 2,6mg/dl, respectivamente. Os níveis de carotenóides foram mais baixos nos três grupos de estudo em relação ao grupo testemunha (p<0,05). Os baixos níveis de vitamina A verificados nas crianças estudadas estão em concordância com outras pesquisas que encontraram diminuição dos níveis de vitamina A durante as infecções.

Confiabilidade da declaração de causa básica de mortes infantis em região metropolitana do sudeste do Brasil

A partir de dados coletados para um estudo sobre a mortalidade infantil na região metropolitana de Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil, foi selecionada uma amostra aleatória de óbitos infantis ocorridos em 1989, para avaliar a concordância da causa básica de morte registrada na declaração de óbito e a obtida após revisão detalhada do prontuário hospitalar da criança. Verificou-se que 11,7% dos óbitos neonatais não tiveram a causa básica registrada no atestado, confirmada pela investigação nos prontuários médicos (kappa = 0,61), o mesmo ocorrendo em 44,0% dos pós-neonatais (kappa = 0,47). Esta maior discordância no grupo pós-neonatal provavelmente se deveu a maior dificuldade de definição das causas contribuintes e da causa básica dos óbitos por diarréias, pneumonias e desnutrição, principais causas de mortalidade nesse grupo. Em relação aos óbitos por desnutrição e diarréia, observou-se associação entre ambas em 76,9% das vezes em que a diarréia foi selecionada como causa básica, mostrando que essas patologias podem ser destacadas como um mesmo grupamento em saúde pública. As discordâcias encontradas demonstram que os médicos ainda dão pouca importância ao seu papel como agentes geradores de informação de saúde. Os dados da declaração de óbito fornecem indicação razoável das principais causas de mortes infantis, principalmente quando se considera o grupamento diarréia-pneumonia-desnutrição, composto de patologias evitáveis e ainda de grande relevância como causa de mortalidade infantil na região.